UC-NRLF 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

GIFT  OF 

MRS.   MARY  WOLFSOHN 

IN   MEMORY  OF 

HENRY  WOLFSOHN 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

NATURAL  HISTORY: 


EMBRACING 


ZOOLOGY,  BOTANY  AND  GEOLOGY; 


SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES  AND  FAMILIES. 


BY 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D., 

SURGEON,  U.  8.  NAVY;    MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY;  OF  THE  ACADEMY 

OF  NATURAL  SCIENCES,  PHILADELPHIA:  OF  THE  AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOB 

THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE;   &C.,  iiC. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 


WITH    NEARLY   ONE    THOUSAND    ILLUSTRATIONS, 
AND    A   COPIOUS    GLOSSARY. 


VOL.    I. 

RTEBRATE   ANIMALS, 


PHILADELPHIA: 
CLAXTON,  REMSEN  &  HAFFELFINGER, 

819  &  821  MARKET  STREET, 
1871. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D., 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States}  for  toe 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


VOL.  I. 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  ANIMALS, 


VERTEBRATE    ANIMALS. 

MAMMALOGY:  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MILK-EATING  ANIMAL* 
ORNITHOLOGY:   THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  BIRDS. 
HERPETOLOGY:   THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  REPTILES. 
ICHTHYOLOGY:   THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  FISHES. 

INVERTEBRATE    ANIMALS. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MOLLUSKS,  EMBRACING  CONCHOLOGY. 


PREFACE. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  embraces  every  object  in  nature,  or- 
ganic and  inorganic.  The  animal  kingdom  contains  about 
tw&  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  species,  and  the  vegetable 
kingdom  about  eighty-five  thousand  species,  making  an  ag- 
gregate of  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  organized 
objects,  for  the  study  of  the  naturalist.  Besides  these, 
rocks  and  minerals  of  every  kind  are  to  be  added,  which 
would  probably  swell  the  number  to  nearly  four  hundred 
thousand. 

The  purpose  of  the  science  of  Natural  History  is  to 
arrange,  divide  and  subdivide  all  these  objects,  so  that  they 
may  be  collectively  and  individually  studied,  with  a  view 
to  the  benefit  of  mankind. 

The  design  of  this  work  is  not  to  describe  the  characters 
and  habits  of  every  animal,  nor  the  properties  of  every 
plant,  mineral  and  rock  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  but 
to  furnish  to  students  in  schools  and  colleges,  and  to  read- 
ers generally,  a  text-book  from  which  they  may  acquire 
the  principles  of  the  science  of  Natural  History,  which 
of  course  includes  the  principles  of  classification,  and  learn 
how  to  recognize  the  differences  and  resemblances,  and  the 
various  properties  of  organized  beings,  as  well  as  of  inor- 
ganic matter. 

The  work  is  divided  into  eight  books,  each  one  of  which 
embraces  a  distinct  department  or  branch  of  the  science ; 
they  are  as  follows  : — 


PREFACE. 


The  First  book  is  devoted  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  animals — 

The  Second,  embraces  the  classification  of  the  animal 
kingdom ;  and  the  consideration  of  mammalia,  or  those 
animals  which  are  suckled  while  in  the  infant  state — 

The  Third,  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  birds — 

The  Fourth,  is  occupied  with  an  account  of  reptiles  and 
fishes — 

The  Fifth,  embraces  that  branch  of  our  subject  which 
treats  of  the  mollusca  or  soft  animals,  and,  consequently, 
includes  the  elements  of  conchology — 

The  Sixth,  includes  a  consideration  of  articulated  ani- 
mals, insects,  myriapods,  arachnidans,  crustaceans,  cirrho- 
pods,  annelidans,  and  zoophytes,  or  radiated  animals — 

The  Seventh,  is  devoted  to  vegetable  physiology  and 
botany — 

And  the  Eighth,  to  Geology. 

To  the  whole  is  appended  a  Lexicon,  or  Glossary,  which 
contains  the  derivation  and  explanation  of  between  five 
and  six  thousand  technical  terms  and  names,  used  in  the 
various  departments  of  Natural  History.  In  the  Glossary, 
Greek  words  are  printed  in  italics,  and,  where  it  occurs,  the 
omega  is  marked  thus  (o). 

The  volumes  are  illustrated  by  nearly  a  thousand  en- 
gravings, executed  by  Mr.  G.  Thomas. 

The  work  is  based  chiefly,  though  not  entirely,  upon  the 
text  of  MILNE  EDWARDS,  ACHILLE  COMTE,  and  F.  S.  BEU- 
DANT,  Professors  of  Natural  History  in  the  Colleges  of 
Henri  IY.  and  Charlemagne,  in  France.  Besides  the 
works  of  these  distinguished  teachers,  those  of  Cuvier,  T. 
Rymer  Jones,  Lamarck,  Blainville,  Thomas  Say,  Nuttall, 
Lindley,  Loudon,  Smith,  Gray,  Reed,  Ansted,  Lyell,  Man- 
tel, Murchison,  Trimmer,  Buckland,  Bakewell,  Lea,  De  la 
Beche,  Parkinson,  Phillips,  Dana,  Percival,  Charles  T. 
Jackson,  Henry  D.  Rogers,  Morton,  Conrad,  &c.,  &c.,  have 


PREFACE.  vii 


been  consulted  and  freely  used  in  the  preparation  of  these 
'volumes. 

The  writer  takes  great  pleasure  in  believing  that,  in  sup- 
plying an  elementary  work  on  natural  history,  his  humble 
labours  may  be  beneficial  to  the  country.  As  a  useful 
bra'nch  of  education,  natural  history  seems  not  to  be  suffi- 
ciently appreciated,  or  extensively  regarded. 

By  the  term  Natural  History,  we  mean  that  science 
which  embraces  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  all  bodies, 
whether  living  or  inorganic,  found  on  the  whole  face  of  the 
earth,  or  united  together  to  constitute  its  mass ;  a  know- 
ledge of  the  phenomena  observable  in  these  bodies,  the 
characteristics  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished  from 
each  other,  and  the  parts  they  perform  in  the  great  total 
of  the  creation.  Its  domain  is  immense,  and  its  impor- 
tance does  not  yield  to  its  extent.  Some  men,  possessing 
little  acquaintance  with  science,  perceive  in  it  a  mere  col- 
lection of  anecdotes,  more  fitted  to  gratify  idle  curiosity 
than  to  exercise  the  mind ;  or  they  regard  it  as  a  dry  study 
of  technical  names  and  arbitrary  classifications ;  but  such 
an  opinion  has  its  source  in  ignorance,  for  no  one  possess- 
ing the  most  elementary  notions  of  natural  history  can  fail 
to  recognise  its  great  utility.  The  spectacle  of  nature, 
grand  and  harmonious  as  it  is,  showing  how  vastly  superior 
in  beauty  the  reality  of  the  creation  is  to  the  most  magni- 
ficent of  human  inventions,  elevates  and  disposes  the  mind 
to  high  and  salutary  thoughts.  A  knowledge  of  ourselves, 
and  of  the  objects  which  surround  us,  is  not  merely  to 
satisfy  our  craving  for  information  —  a  craving  which  is 
developed  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  intelligence :  it 
is  a  necessary  foundation  for  many  other  studies,  and  is 
eminently  calculated  to  impart  that  rectitude  of  judgment 
without  which  the  most  brilliant  qualities  lose  their  value, 
and,  in  the  course  of  life,  rather  lead  from  than  conduct 

us  to  useful  conclusions.     The  importance  of  the  natural 

A* 


viii  PREFACE. 


sciences  ought  to  be  too  evident  to  require  demonstration. 
Geology  and  mineralogy  render  daily  services  to  industry, 
by  enabling  us  better  to  explore  the  wealth  buried  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  ;  Botany  makes  us  acquainted  with  the 
plants,  so  varied  and  so  beautiful,  which  supply  our  wants 
in  magnificent  prodigality ;  Zoology  gives  a  knowledge 
of  those  animals  which  produce  wool,  silk,  and  honey,  and 
those  that  assist  us  in  our  toils  with  their  strength,  as  well 
as  of  those  which,  instead .  of  being  useful  to  us,  destroy 
our  crops.  How  important  a  guide  natural  history  may  be 
made  to  agriculture,  the  great  pursuit  in  the  United  States ! 
Besides,  let  us  remember  the  long  list  of  diseases  by  which 
the  human  machine  is  afflicted,  and  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  practice  of  medicine  is  blind  in  action  when  it  does 
not  rest  on  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  man. 

The  practical  importance  of  the  study  of  natural  history, 
we  repeat,  requires  no  proof,  and  must  be  felt,  no  matter 
what  may  be  our  career.  But  its  influence  does  not  stop 
here ;  the  influence  it  can  be  made  to  exert  over  our  facul- 
ties themselves,  is  worthy  of  the  most  serious  attention. 
In  fact,  the  natural  sciences,  by  reason  of  the  routine  sys- 
tem peculiar  to  them,  accustom  the  mind  to  go  back  from 
effects  to  causes,  and  at  the  same  time  invariably  submit 
results  deduced  from  preceding  observations  to  the  test  of 
new  facts ;  their  study  leads  to  speculations  of  the  most 
elevated  character,  but  never  leads  the  imagination  astray, 
because  it  always  places  material  proof  alongside  of  theory. 
And  beyond  any  other-  pursuit,  natural  history  exercises 
the  mind  in  habits  of  method,  a  part  of  logic  without  which 
every  investigation  is  laborious,  and  every  exposition  ob- 
scure. 

Natural  History  ought  to  constitute  one  of  the  elements 
of  every  system  of  liberal  education ;  but  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  every  young  man  should  be  a  naturalist.  To 
become  a  proficient  in  a  science  so  vast  in  its  scope,  would 


PREFACE. 


require  more  time  than  can  be  spared  from  other  classical 
studies,  and  it  comprises  a  host  of  details  useful  only  to 
those  who  are  desirous  of  devoting  themselves  especially 
to  it.  What  every  well-educated  young  man  ought  to 
know  is,  not.  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  this  or 
that  genus  of  plants  or  animals  from  another  genus,  nor 
the  exact  course  of  every  nerve,  or  every  artery  in  the 
human  body:  to  charge  his  memory  with  such  details, 
would  subject  him  to  labour  which  would  be  neither  useful 
nor  durable  in  its  results ;  but  what  he  ought  to  possess, 
are  sound  views  on  all  the  great  questions  the  solution  of 
which  pertains  to  the  province  of  the  natural  sciences ; 
those  on  the  constitution  of  the  earth,  and  the  physical  revo- 
lutions that  have  taken  place  on  its  surface  ;  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  functions  of  all  creatures  are  performed,  and 
the  principal  modifications  observed  in  their  structure,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  life  for  which  they  have  been  des- 
tined. This  extent  of  information,  once  acquired,  would 
not  be  soon  forgotten ;  and  it  is  enough  for  those  whose 
occupations  are  not  closely  connected  with  these  sciences. 
All  who  desire  to  become  naturalists  must  acquire,  not 
only  these  principles,  but  also  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  details  alluded  to  above. 

Such  are  the  opinions  of  M.  Edwards,  the  eminent 
French  naturalist.  I  am  sure  the  propagation  of  these 
opinions  in  our  country  will  advance  its  interests.  To  the 
science  of  agriculture,  natural  history,  properly  taught,  is 
of  great  importance,  because  it  teaches  us  the  structure  of 
animals,  the  mode  of  their  existence,  and  what  is  essential 
to  their  life.  This  knowledge  enables  us  to  treat  their 
diseases  with  a  better  prospect  of  success,  and  to  destroy 
those  animals  which  are  injurious  to  our  interests.  Of  the 
value  of  geology  in  teaching  us  the  nature  of  the  earth's 
surface,  there  is  not  less  doubt. 

It  ought  not  to  be  urged  against  the  study  of  natural 


PREFACE. 


history,  that  it  requires  us  to  become  familiar  with  hard 
words.  Every  branch  of  human  knowledge  —  every  me- 
chanic art,  has  its  respective  technicalities.  Systematic 
names  are  only  difficult  to  those  who  are  unacquainted 
with  their  meaning.  When  branches,  or  parts  of  know- 
ledge, or  ideas,  become  familiar  and  common,  the  words 
representing  them  cease  to  be  difficult :  then  the  complaint 
about  "hard  words"  ceases.  Few  persons  acquainted  with 
the  instruments,  complain  that  the  words  Thermometer,  or 
Barometer,  are  "hard ;"  the  first  is  familiar  to  all,  even  to 
those  ignorant  of  its  construction  and  numerous  practical 
uses.  The  names  Quadrant  and  Sextant  are  not  "  hard 
words"  to  the  most  unlettered  seaman,  and  we  may  remark, 
in  passing,  that  the  science  of  navigation  would  not  be 
rendered  of  more  easy  acquisition,  if  those  instruments 
were  designated  by  the  more  familiar  names  of  Bob  and 
Bill.  The  votary  of  music  does  not  find  the  numerous 
terms,  such  as  clef,  minim,  semibreve,  crotchet  or  sonata, 
overture,  aria,  or  pianissimo,  crescendo,  forte,  &c.,  obstacles 
in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  science.  It  has  been  ob- 
served by  an  eminent  botanist  of  our  country,  Dr.  Darling- 
ton, that  ladies  find  no  very  great  labour  in  acquiring  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  technical  language  of  fashion, 
of  mantua-making  and  millinery.  Mousseline  de  laine, 
gros  de  Naples,  gimp,  gingham,  gros  des  Indes,  millenet, 
inserting,  tetting,  &c.,  are  examples  of  words  which  are 
hard  to  those  who  do  not  comprehend  their  meaning,  but 
easy  enough  to  those  who  understand  their  application. 
Morus  multicaulis  is  a  systematic  name,  which  was  for  a 
time  well  understood  by  almost  everybody  in  the  United 
States. 

And  the  same  is  true  of  the  systematic  names  used  in 
Natural  History.  Where  there  is  a  disposition  to  learn 
them,  they  are  readily  acquired  at  the  cost  of  a  little 
labour. 


TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS. 


THERE  is  no  easy  method  of  acquiring  knowledge.  It 
is  only  to  be  obtained  by  close  attention  and  unceasing 
labour.  To  become  usefully  learned  in  any  branch  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  quality  of  his 
faculties,  every  man  must  toil  and  take  advantage  of  all 
the  means  within  his  reach. 

It  has  been  asserted  that,  to  become  familiar  with  any 
branch  of  physical  science,  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  with 
the  eyes  and  hear  with  the  ears,  without  resorting  to  other 
means.  It  is  contended,  for  example,  that  Natural  History 
is  best  studied  without  "  the  use  of  any  books  whatever, 
except  the  book  of  nature  and  its  visible  illustrations." 
This  notion  is  entertained  by  persons  of  so  much  learning 
and  influence,  that  it  is  worth  our  time  to  inquire  briefly, 
whether  the  plan  has  pretensions  that  should  lead  to  its 
general  adoption. 

He  who  reads  only,  and  draws  all  his  knowledge  from 
books,  may  perhaps  become  very  learned,  a  skilful  rheto- 
rician, a  formidable  critic,  the  author  of  brilliant  theories, 
the  inventor  of  some  ingenious  system,  but  he  will  never, 
by  this  means  alone,  be  able  to  practice  usefully,  what  he 
has  thus  learned ;  and,  in  most  instances,  it  will  be  found, 
that  instead  of  having  acquired  ideas  of  practical  applica- 
tion, the  memory  has  been  filled  only  with  words. 

The  student  who  is  content  to  follow  lectures,  w^ill  not  be 
more  successful.  One  learns  less  in  this  way  than  by 
reading  good  authors.  By  reading,  we  may  correctly  per- 
ceive the  thoughts  and  opinions  of  an  author,  without  much 
danger  of  attributing  to  him  the  reverse  of  what  he  has 
written  or  wished  to  express.  If  there  i3  any  uncertainty 

(xi) 


xii       TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS. 

as  to  having  rightly  understood  the  text,  before  confiding 
it  to  the  memory,  we  have  it  in  our  power  to  review  those 
passages  which  seem  to  us  either  obscure  or  extravagant ; 
the  book  is  still  there,  opening  its  leaves  to  whomsoever 
would  consult  it  again,  patiently  submitting  to  all  kinds 
of  questions  that  it  may  be  thought  necessary  to  propound. 
But  the  lecture  is  fugitive  and  instantaneous.  In  reading, 
on  the  contrary,  nothing  hinders  comparison,  or  prevents 
the  judgment  from  being  exercised  almost  at  the  same 
time  with  the  memory ;  for  here  we  have  the  expressions 
of  the  author  remaining  unchanged.  In  a  lecture,  of  all 
the  faculties  of  the  mind,  scarcely  any  other  than  that  of 
memory  is  in  active  play ;  for,  it  is  absolutely  necessary, 
first  to  catch  the  words  of  the  professor ;  and  then,  how  is 
one  to  be  certain  that  he  has  not  misunderstood  what  he 
believed  he  heard?  A  word,  or  a  phrase  lost,  a  paren- 
thesis badly  placed  in  the  discourse,  a  second  of  inat- 
tention, are  enough  to  lead  the  auditor  into  gross  mistakes. 
To  what  individual  has  it  not  happened,  in  a  simple  con- 
versation, to  be  under  the  necessity,  before  clearly  compre- 
hending, to  require  the  repetition  of  the  same  thing  once, 
or  even  oftener  by  his  interlocutor  ? 

How  then  is  it  possible  not  to  be  mistaken  in  simply  lis- 
tening to  a  lecture,  in  which  all  cannot  be  clear,  where  the 
thoughts  and  phrases  succeed  each  other  with  such  rapidity, 
where  the  words  require,  as  it  were,  to  be  seized  upon  at 
the  moment  of  utterance  and  placed  in  reserve  by  the  me- 
mory, and  not  to  be  submitted,  until  after  a  lapse  of  time, 
by  the  pupil,  to  all  the  intellectual  operations  necessary 
for  judgment  or  deduction  of  opinion  ?  If  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  and  even  impossible  for  grave  and  intelligent  men 
to  agree  upon  the  sense  designed  to  be  conveyed  in  the 
written  phrases  of  an  author,  which  are  under  their  eyes, 
how  can  you  expect  students  to  be  more  successful  in  ac- 
quiring the  meaning  of  words  which  make  a  passing  iin- 


TO    TEACHERS   AND    STUDENTS.  xiil 

pression,  sometimes  scarcely  striking  upon  their  ears? 
Who  has  not  witnessed  amongst  young  people,  between  fel- 
low students,  disputes  about  what  the  professor  has  said,  or 
has  not  said,  upon  what  was,  or  was  not  the  opinion  of  this 
one  or  that,  although  all  of  them  may  have  listened  to  the 
lecture  which  gave  rise  to  the  dispute  ?  How  many  errors 
have  been  propagated  in  this  wray ;  what  baseless  contro- 
versies have  thus  arisen  ;  how  many  men  have,  in  this  man- 
ner, been  even  brought  to  hate  each  other ! 

He  who  listens  to  a  lecture  without  reading  afterwards, 
may  be  compared  to  a  painter  who,  having  fixed  his  eye 
upon  a  passing  object,  retires  to  draw  its  portrait,  without 
having  the  original  before  him. 

There  is  nothing  in  this,  however,  which  argues  against 
oral  teaching.  This  mode  of  instruction  has  the  advantage 
of  bringing  forward  strong  images,  of  keeping  the  atten- 
tion awake,  of  rendering  descriptions  more  clear,  if  not 
more  correct  than  those  given  in  books,  by  mingling  ges- 
ture with  vocal  intonation.  In  a  lecture,  the  professor  can 
watch  the  eyes  of  his  auditors,  and  pass  at  once  that  which 
a  word  has  sufficed  to  render  intelligible,  or  repeat  the 
same  thing  when  he  perceives  it  was  not  at  first  understood. 
Writings  carry  with  them  only  to  a  small  extent  this  sort 
of  license ;  in  a  lecture  the  eye  and  ear  work  together. 
The  eye  is  the  only  sense  that  acts  in  reading ;  the  memory 
retains  more  readily  what  it  receives  from  oral  lessons  than 
what  it  gets  by  simple  reading.  In  listening,  the  impres- 
sions are  more  numerous,  more  vivid,  more  agreeable,  more 
natural  perhaps  ;  but  they  are  less  complete,  less  exact,  less 
pure,  less  clear  than  those  received  from  reading :  there- 
fore, if  one  is  wrong  in  listening  without  reading,  he  would 
be  equally  wrong  to  read  and  not  listen.  These  two  modes 
of  instruction  mutually  assist  each  other,  and  are  not  reci- 
procally exclusive.  If  you  would  profit  by  them,  listen, 
and  retain  as  much  as  you  can,  and  then  study  the  subject 


xiv      TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS. 

in  those  books  that  treat  it  best.  By  reading,  you  rectify 
the  errors  of  the  ear ;  and  listening  clears  up  what  may 
have  been  obscure  in  reading.  If  you  would  clearly  under- 
stand what  you  hear,  read  before  or  after,  or  both  before  and 
after  the  lecture,  what  has  been  published  about  its  subject. 

No  one  would  expect  to  become  a  poet  or  tragedian  by 
simply  listening  to  recitations,  or  witnessing  the  representa- 
tions at  a  theatre.  Nor  could  any  one  acquire  the  infor- 
mation necessary  to  be  a  painter,  by  simply  walking  through 
galleries  of  pictures.  He  must  resort  to  books,  and  study 
their  contents  with  care  and  attention. 

In  all  times,  and  in  all  places,  all  men  have  felt  the  ne- 
cessity of  going  from  spoken  to  written  language.  For- 
merly, pupils  drew  the  lessons  of  their  masters  on  the 
leaves  of  trees,  to  meditate  on  them  afterwards  at  leisure. 
Professors  now,  very  generally,  have  their  respective  courses 
printed,  that  the  student  may  have  the  text  always  at  hand 
for  reference  and  study. 

An  individual  entering  a  city  for  the  first  time,  will  make 
less  progress  and  become  less  perfectly  acquainted  with  it, 
if  he  depend  altogether  upon  his  own  observation  and  ver- 
bal directions,  than  one  who  joins  to  these  means  of  infor- 
mation, guide-books  and  maps.  To  become  acquainted 
with  anatomy  by  merely  listening  to  lectures,  or  by  reading 
only,  or  by  dissecting  alone,  unaided  either  by  oral  lessons 
or  books,  would  be  the  labour  of  a  life-time,  even  if  it  be 
possible  at  all ;  but  by  joining  all  these  means,  by  listening 
to  lectures,  by  reading,  and  by  dissection,  he  will  lessen 
the  labour,  abbreviate  the  time  to  a  few  years  at  most,  and 
attain  a  perfect  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  science. 

To  read,  to  see,  to  hear,  to  study,  to  observe,  and  to  lis- 
ten, are  not  too  many  means  of  acquiring  solid  information 
of  any  physical  subject.  Whoever  confines  himself  to  one 
of  these  means  alone,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  rest,  will 
never  acquire  complete  knowledge  of  any  physical  science. 


TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS.       xv 

To  study  natural  history  then  with  entire  success,  the 
student  should  listen  to  lectures,  read  and  study  in  books, 
visit  museums  and  collections ;  and,  in  order  to  join  the 
observation  of  material  things  with  reading  and  lectures, 
every  school,  if  possible,  should  be  furnished  with  a  mu- 
seum of  instruction;  that  is,  a  collection  containing  the 
types  of  all  the  genera,  that  the  student  may  have  the 
opportunity  of  comparing  natural  objects  with  oral  and 
written  descriptions  of  them.  In  this  way  only  can  one 
become  a  thorough  naturalist.  Though  this  is  not  a  desire 
of  every  one,  still  all  should  possess  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  to  understand  the  principles  upon  which  the 
objects  of  nature  are  arranged,  for  the  purpose  of  conve- 
nient and  advantageous  study. 

If  the  reader  of  these  observations  will  reflect  upon 
them,  and  decide  for  himself  upon  their  general  truth,  he 
will  not  think  it  expedient  or  profitable,  to  withhold  books 
from  students  of  physical  science — not  even  from  those 
who  have  the  opportunity  of  listening  to  the  most  accom- 
plished lecturers ;  nor  will  he,  I  think,  be  of  opinion  that 
Natural  History  can  be  best  taught,  and  to  "  beginners 
especially,"  "without  the  use  of  any  book,  whatever,  except 
the  book  of  nature  and  its  visible  illustrations." 

Teachers  who  are  so  disposed,  will  find  in  these  pages 
many  opportunities  to  show  those  whom  they  instruct, 
the  beautiful  adaptation  of  organization  in  every  living 
thing  to  the  mode  of  life  it  is  designed  to  observe,  and  the 
kind  of  food  upon  which  it  was  pre-ordered  it  should  live. 
To  point  out,  or  even  allude  to  this  universal  adaptation 
of  every  thing  in  nature,  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was 
designed  by  the  beneficent  Creator,  would  have  carried  us 
far  beyond  our  limits,  and  interfered  with  the  design  of  pre- 
senting, in  a  very  short  space,  as  many  facts  as  possible, 
without  obscuring  the  view  of  arrangement  or  classification 

in  Natural  History,  a  knowledge  of  which  it  is  a  leading 

B 


xvi       TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS. 

object  of  the  work  to  teach.  Yet,  this  can  be  advantage- 
ously done  verbally,  by  every  teacher;  and  his -pupils  will 
soon  learn  that,  after  becoming  acquainted  with  the  general 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  an  animal,  whether  it  move 
upon  the  dry  land,  float  through  the  air,  or  seek  the  ocean 
depths,  its  mode  of  life  and  general  habits  are  immediately 
discovered.  This  fact  will  become  more  clearly  manifest  as 
we  proceed ;  and  in  the  end,  the  student  will  comprehend 
how  Geologists  are  able  to  deduce,  not  only  the  habits  of 
an  animal,  but  also  the  form  of  the  animal  itself,  by  exa- 
mination of  only  a  few  of  its  bones. 

In  order  to  study  Geology  with  greater  facility  and  suc- 
cess, schools  should  be  supplied  with  drawings,  representing 
the  principal  facts  in  the  science :  and  also  with  some  recent 
marine,  fluviatile,  and  terrestrial  shells ;  specimens  of  coral, 
turf,  and  volcanic  products,  all  distinctly  labelled ;  these, 
after  being  pointed  out,  should  be  left  accessible  to  the 
pupils. 

To  teach  them  the  composition  of  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
there  should  be  drawings  of  the  different  stratifications,  and 
collections  of  fossils  characteristic  of  the  several  formations. 
Where  fossils  cannot  be  obtained,  casts  representing  them 
will  serve  a  good  purpose.  Specimens  of  the  various  crys- 
talline and  sedimentary  rocks  should  form  a  part  of  the 
teacher's  apparatus. 

To  illustrate  the  various  effects  attributable  to  igneous 
and  aqueous  causes,  there  should  be  some  well-selected  and 
distinctly  labelled  specimens,  of  fossil-shells,  of  encrinites, 
of  echinideae,  of  madrepores,  &c.,  in  order  to  compare  them 
with  those  now  existing.  Drawings  on  a  large  scale,  of 
faults  and  crevices,  of  dykes  and  injected  rocks,  of  basaltic 
bosses,  and  of  erosions  attributable  to  water,  should  also  be- 
long to  the  school.  During  and  after  the  lessons  which 
refer  to  a  particular  part  of  the  subject,  these  specimens  and 
drawings  should  be  exhibited  and  explained  to  the  pupils. 


INTRODUCTION.* 


NATURAL  HISTORY,  which  may  be  defined  the  intelligent  con- 
templation of  the  works  of  God,  is  in  a  manner  the  most  certain 
and  the  most  noble  subject,  that  can  occupy  the  mind  of  man.  In 
it  alone,  human  genius  is  in  full  possession  of  certainty.  Philoso- 
phy, politics,  history,  and  morality  itself,  are  subject  to  the  intel- 
lectual revolutions  of  wavering  humanity;  but  the  facts  of  the 
Creation  are  as  invariable  as  God,  and  the  analysis  of  a  plant  or 
an  insect  marks  its  demonstration  with  the  seal  of  eternal  truth. 

The  double  effect  of  the  study  of  Natural  History  is  to  impart 
certainty  to  the  mind,  and  religion  to  the  heart.  The  creation  is 
a  visible  ladder  by  which  man  ascends  towards  the  invisible 
CREATOR. 

Natural  History,  the  science  which  is  the  mother  of  all  sciences, 
embraces  the  whole  world ;  physical  knowledge,  mathematical  know- 
ledge, are  all  comprehended  in  its  domain ;  and  the  teachings  of 
morality  here  mingle  spontaneously  with  thoughts  of  religion. 

It  has  been  said  that  Natural  History  should  be  the  only  reading- 
book  of  the  people ;  I  would  add,  it  should  be  especially  the  first 
book  of  childhood.  Of  all  the  means  which  we  may  successfully  em- 
ploy for  awakening  the  intellect  of  young  people,  there  is  none,  the 
results  of  which  are  more  certain  or  more  durable  than  curiosity 
the  desire  to  know  is  as  natural  as  reason ;  it  is  vivid,  and  active 
at  every  period  of  life,  but  it  is  never  more  so  than  in  youth,  when 
the  mind,  destitute  of  knowledge,  seizes  upon  all  that  presents 
itself  with  avidity,  and  willingly  gives  the  attention  and  study  ne- 
cessary to  know,  and  very  naturally  contracts  the  habit  of  reflection, 
and  of  being  occupied. 

•  Extracted  from  the  "Atlas  Methodique,"  of  Natural  History. 

(xvii) 


xviu  INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  not  the  labours  of  the  learned  that  are  to  be  brought  to 
the  attention  of  infancy,  but  a  study  of  nature,  to  comprehend 
which  requires  scarcely  anything  but  eyes,  and  which  consists  in 
examining  carefully  the  objects  of  nature,  in  order  to  admire  their 
beauties,  without  diving  into  their  hidden  causes.  Children  are 
capable  of  this  study,  for  they  have  eyes,  and  they  have  curiosity ; 
they  desire  to  know,  and  they  are  inquiring.  A  garden,  a  field,  a 
palace,  all  is  an  open  book  for  them ;  and  they  should  be  taught 
to  read  in  it.  "  It  is  inconceivable/'  says  Rollin,  "  how  much 
children  might  Learn  if  we  could  profit  by  the  opportunities  which 
they  themselves  afford  us."  To  seize  upon  these  opportunities 
should  be  a  desideratum  with  instructors  and  parents. 

Frivolous  pretexts  have  for  a  long*  time  been  urged  against 
teaching  Natural  History,  and  even  when  the  description  of  a 
few  plants  and  insects  was  permitted,  the  book  was  hastily  closed 
before  the  reader  arrived  at  the  study  of  man,  without  dreaming 
that  this  study,  which  Galen  pronounced  a  hymn  to  divinity,  takes 
its  place  amongst  those  branches  of  knowledge  most  worthy  of 
his  genius. 

By  examining  the  material  springs  of  his  being,  man  accustoms 
himself  to  raise  his  thoughts  to  their  author  and  preserver;  the 
more  he  considers  their  wonderful  organization,  the  more  he  feels 
the  necessity  of  seeking  beyond  himself  for  the  Supreme  Cause ; 
it  is  at  this  moment  he  feels  the  insufficiency  of  his  own  limited 
explanations  to  deceive  the  human  mind  into  a  gross  materialism, 
and  that  he  feels  assured  that  this  machine,  which  goes  of  itself,  is 
regulated  by  a  wisdom  superior  to  his  own.  Constrained  then  to 
seek  a  motive  beyond  the  circle  of  physical  causes,  his  enlightened 
reason  reveals  to  him  the  immaterial  agent  who  binds  all  things, 
and  directs  them  by  rules,  and  to  the  end,  which  he  judges  to  be 
proper. 

,  These  ideas,  however  reasonable  they  may  appear,  were  in  no- 
wise admissible  only  a  few  years  ago ;  the  fear  of  weakening  reli- 
gious sentiment  was  the  motive  for  banishing  Natural  History 
from  the  schools;  and  nothing  less  than  the  imposing  authority 
of  the  great  naturalist,  whose  grievous  loss  the  Sciences  will  for 
a  long  time  deplore,  nothing  less  than  the  constancy  of  his  efforts 


INTRODUCTION.  nx 

and  the  powerful  influence  of  the  example  afforded  in  himself, 
were  sufficient  to  win  over  to  his  opinion,  those  great  men  to 
whom  is  confided  the  direction  of  public  instruction  in  France. 

M.  Cuvier  was  happy  in  demonstrating  the  necessity  of  uniting 
to  the  study  of  antiquity,  a  contemplation  of  the  most  sublime 
and  durable  spectacle  of  all  nature  and  the  laws  which  preserve 
it  in  harmony ;  and,  that  Natural  History,  which,  only  in  our  day, 
has  grown  to  be  of  importance,  is  an  indispensable  element  in  a 
good  education. 

The  habit  of  classifying  a  great  number  of  ideas  in  the  mind, 
and  the  art  of  methodizing  which  one  necessarily  learns  while 
pursuing  Natural  History,  when  once  properly  acquired,  apply  with 
infinite  advantage  to  studies  of  a  most  foreign  and  distinct  charac- 
ter. Every  discussion  which  supposes  a  classification  of  facts, 
every  research  requiring  a  distribution  of  materials,  must  be  con- 
ducted on  the  same  laws;  and  the  youth  who,  in  the  beginning, 
thought  to  pursue  this  science  only  as  an  amusement,  is  surprised 
at  the  facility  with  which  it  enables  him  to  disentangle  and  arrange 
affairs  of  all  kinds. 

By  proper  management  and  precaution  with  children,  it  is  easy 
to  avoid  all  those  points  which,  by  opening  to  it  routes  deceptive  to 
their  early  thoughts,  might  cause  the  imagination  to  err.  Natural 
History  is  a  science  of  facts ;  and  one  may,  therefore,  confine  him- 
self to  the  description  of  observable  facts,  and  he  will  find  nothing  in 
them,  the  knowledge  of  which  can  be,  in  the  slightest  degree,  at 
variance  with  morality  or  religion.  These  elementary  notions,  early 
imparted  to  children,  will  contribute  to  the  progress  of  their  minds 
and  reason ;  render  the  other  studies  to  which  they  may  dedicate 
themselves  more  easy  and  more  brilliant,  and  serve  as  a  basis  to 
the  more  profound  knowledge  they  may  acquire  in  riper  years. 

The  spectacle  of  Nature  presents  a  striking  assemblage  of  all  that 
is  most  wise,  most  beautiful,  most  simple,  and  most  wonderful ;  the 
whole,  however,  would  be  ephemeral,  if  God  had  not  the  secret  of 
harmoniously  associating  all  these  productions,  of  perpetuating  them 
in  an  immutable  order,  and  of  placing  man  in  the  midst  of  this 
ever  moving  scene,  that  he  might  be  as  the  mirror  to  reflect  the 
various  images  of  the  universe. 

B* 


INTRODUCTION. 


Man  was  a  necessity  to  the  creation ;  and  it  is  with  him  alone 
that  the  intelligence  of  created  things  began. 

Bacon  has  given  an  admirable  definition  of  science :  "  Science," 
pays  he,  "is  man  added  to  nature."  In  vain  would  the  earth  open 
its  bosom  to  show  in  broad  day  the  combinations  of  its  metals,  the 
agglutination  of  its  stones,  or  the  crystallization  of  its  salts  ;  in 
vain  would  the  emerald  or  topaz  exist  in  transparent  columns,  and 
the  waters  gush  through  the  rent  rocks  in  limpid  and  living 
streams ;  all  these  sublime  phenomena  would  be  without  value, 
without  object;  in  a  word,  Nature  would  not  be  understood,  if  man 
had  not  been  created  to  know  and  describe  her. 

Indeed,  if  we  carry  our  thoughts  back  to  the  primitive  ages  of  the 
world,  to  those  epochs  that  preceded  the  appearance  of  man  upon 
the  earth,  we  discover  that  every  thing  the  imagination  finds  to  dwell 
upon  is  gigantic,  without  form  and  monstrous ;  the  mind  passes  in 
fear  from  an  account  of  a  revolution  to  the  history  of  the  deluge, 
where  there  is  nought  but  destruction  and  submersion,  painful  labor 
and  abortion.  Pyrites  enkindle  the  volcanoes;  burning  sulphur 
perpetuates  these  vast  conflagrations;  boiling  waters  are  decom- 
•  posed  in  their  fires ;  from  these  craters  rush  forth  flames  and  burn- 
ing lava;  their  accumulations  are  projected  into  the  midst  of  rivers, 
which  are  thus  turned  violently  from  their  course ;  electric  detona- 
tions shake  the  earth  far  and  wide,  and  open  it  in  frightful  rents ; 
the  ocean  beholds  its  bed  torn  up  by  volcanic  eruptions ;  new  isles 
raise  their  smoking  heads  above  the  waves ;  and,  too  ponderous  for 
the  pedicles  that  support  them,  like  some  magic  promontories,  they 
soon  disappear,  and  the  heaps  of  their  ruins  form  the  base  of  steep 
rocks  which  may  at  some  future  time  become  vast  continents. 

In  these  incoherent  preludes  we  perceive  chaos ;  and  it  is  only 
at  remote  periods,  we  are  permitted  to  detect  some  unfinished  phe- 
nomena of  an  uncertain  and  incomplete  life;  a  life  which  struggles 
against  nihility,  and  overcomes  it  only  with  difficulty;  a  life  that 
would  take  possession  of  the  globe,  and  which  contends  against 
the  laws  of  inert  matter,  whose  dominion  is  universal. 

In  this,  then,  behold  what  nature  was  without  man.  .  .  .  But  if 
man  appear,  if,  to  recur  to  the  brilliant  thought  of  Bacon,  "  man 
'ft  added  to  nature,"  then  Creation  has  a  voice,  a  value,  a  sense. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Of  the  innumerable  crowds  of  animals,  and  of  plants  that  share 
between  them  the  domain  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  marvellous 
events  that  renew  the  face  of  things,  man  has  become  the  master 
and  the  historian  ;  all  have  an  equal  right  to  his  admiration,  all 
are  equally  subjects  of  his  study.  From  the  almost  imperceptible 
mould  to  the  collosal  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom;  from 
the  microscopic  animalcule  to  the  elephant  and  the  whale;  from 
the  atom  of  sand  to  the  summit  of  Atlas,  he  interrogates,  he  com- 
prehends, he  explains  them  all.  Imagination  no  longer  has  need 
of  inventing  brilliant  pictures  ;  truth  alone  strikes  the  mind  and 
elevates  the  soul;  and,  in  place  of  the  confused  reveries  inspired 
by  chaos,  appears  a  science  of  wisdom,  of  reason,  and  of  order, 
which  is,  in  a  word,  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

The  individual  who  enters  a  field,  or  strolls  upon  the  bank  of  a 
stream,  or  roams  through  a  forest,  if  he  comprehend  the  elements 
of  Natural  History,  may  read  a  pleasant  story,  and  acquire  infor- 
mation at  every  step,  from  the  great  book  of  nature,  which  every- 
where lies  open  wide  before  him  ;  but  if  ignorant  of  Natural  His- 
tory, this  magnificent  and  varied  work  is  to  him  of  no  more  value 
than  a  printed  volume  is  to  one  who  never  learned  a  letter.  Natural 
History  not  only  affords  us  the  means  of  endless  amusement,  but 
teaches  us  to  discover  the  riches  of  the  earth,  and  to  gather  from 
them,  the  means  of  ameliorating  and  improving  the  condition  of 
man. 


CONTENTS 

OF 

ELEMENTS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOOK    I. 

ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 


LESSON  I. 

The  Natural  Sciences  and  their  Divisions — Definition  of  Zoology- 
General  knowledge  necessary  to  its  successful  study.  The  Struc- 
ture of  Animals  and  Enumeration  of  their  principal  Organs — Clas- 
sification of  the  Functions  of  Animals Page  19 — 26 

LESSON  II. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Nutrition  of  Organs — Proof  of  the  existence 
of  the  Nutritive  movement — Coloring  of  Bones — The  Blood  is 
the  principal  agent  of  Nutrition — Use  of  the  Blood — Study  of  this 
liquid — Physical  properties  of  the  Blood — Red  and  white  Blood- 
Globules —  Serum  —  Coagulation — Venous  and  Arterial  Blood — 
Transformation  of  Venous  into  Arterial  Blood  by  the  action  of 
the  air P.  27 — 33 

LESSON  III. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Circulation  of  the  Blood — The  Heart — Arte- 
ries— Veins — Motion  of  the  Blood  in  the  Bodies  of  the  Mammi- 
ferae- — Mechanism  of  the  Circulation — Phenomenon  of  the  Pulse — 
Venous  absorption — Secretions P.  33 — 46 

LESSON  IV. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Respiration — Necessity  of  contact  with  the 
Air — Asphyxia — Composition  of  the  Atmosphere — Principal  phe- 
nomena of  Respiration — The  Lungs — Mechanism  of  Respiration 

-Animal  Heat P.  47—54 

(xxm) 


xxiv  CONTENTS. —  VOLUME   I. 

LESSON  V. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Digestion — The  Mouth — The  Prehension  of 
Aliments — Mastication — The  Teeth  ;  their  structure  ;  the  manner 
of  their  formation;  their  form  and  use — Saliva — Salivary  Glands 
— Deglutition — Pharynx — (Esophagus P.  54 — 64 

LESSON  VI. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Stomach  Digestion,  or  Chymification — Intes- 
tinal Digestion,  or  Chylification — The  Bile — The  Liver — The  Pan 
creas  and  Pancreatic  Juice — Large  Intestine — Chyle — Chyliferous 
vessels — Recapitulation  of  the  Functions  of  Nutrition P.  64 — 71 

LESSON  VII. 

Functions  of  Relation — Nervous  System  and  Sensibility — Brain — 
Spinal  Marrow—Nerves P.  71—77 

LESSON  VIII. 

Functions  of  Relation — Sense  of  Touch — The  Skin — Hands — Hair 
— Beard — Nails — Horns — Mode  of  Formation — Sense  of  Smell — 
Olfactory  Apparatus — Sense  of  Taste — Sense  of  Hearing — Audi- 
tory Apparatus P.  77 — 85 

LESSON  IX. 

Functions  of  Relation  -Sense  of  Sight — Light — Apparatus  of  Vision 
— Eye-brows — Eye-lids — Lachrymal  Apparatus — Muscles  of  the 
Eye — Structure  of  the  Eye — Uses  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
Eye— Voice P.  85—93 

LESSON  X. 

Functions  of  Relation — Apparatus  of  Motion — Skeleton — Structure  of 
Bones — their  Composition — Enumeration  of  the  Bones — Articula- 
tions or  Joints — Muscles — Attitudes — Locomotion P.  93 — 109 


BOOK    II. 

(Vertebrate  Animals  :  Class  7.) 

MAMMALOGY;  THE  NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  MILK-EATING 

ANIMALS. 

LESSON  I. 

Classification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom — Comparison  of  Animals— 
Their  Division  into  four  Branches — Characters  of  each  of  these 
Branches — Division  of  the  Vertebrata  into  four  Classes.. . ..  P  11 — 20 


CONTENTS)— VOLUME  i. 


LESSON  II. 

Mammalia — Peculiarities    of  the  Organization    of  Animals   of  this 
Class— Division  into  Orders - P.  20—27 


LESSON  III. 

Order  of  Bimana — The  only  Species,  Man — Anatomical  Characters 
which  distinguish  the  Body  of  Man  from  that  of  the  other  Mam- 
mals— Hands — Feet — Station — Brain — Human  Races P.  28 — 33 


LESSON  IV. 

Order  of  Quadrumana — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  their 
Organization  compared  to  their  Habits — Division  into  three  Fa- 
mi-lies  ;  their  zoological  Characters. 

Family  of  Monkeys — Division  into  Monkeys  of  the  Old  and  New- 
Continent —  Description  and  Habits  of  the  principal  Genera, 
(Ourangs,  Gibbons,  Guenons,  Magots,  Cynocephalus — Howling 
Monkey.) 

Family  of  Ouistitis — Manners. 

Family  of  Makis — Description  and  Habits P.  33 — 41 

LESSON  V. 

Order  of  Carnaria — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  their  Or- 
ganization—  Division  into  Families  —  Family  of  Cheiroptera  — 
Zoological  Characters — Tribe  of  Bats — Peculiarities  of  Organiza- 
tion— Habits — Frugivorous  Bats  (example,  the  Roussette) — Insecti- 
vorous Bats  (example,  Vespertilio,  Oreillard) — Tribe  of  Galeopi- 
thecus. 

Family  of  Insectivora — Zoological  Characters — Organization  and 
Habits  of  the  Hedgehog,  the^Shrew,  and  the  Mole P.  41—4" 

LESSON  VI. 

Family  of  the  Carnivora — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of 
Organization — Division  into  three  Tribes. 

Tribe  of  Plantigrada — Zoological  Characters — Organization  and  Ha- 
bits of  Bears  (Brown  Bear,  White  Bear,  Black  Bear) — Badgers — 
Use  of  their  Hair. 

Tribe  of  Digitigrada — Zoological  Characters — Group  of  vermiform 
Digitigrades — History  of  the  Polecats — (Common  Polecat,  Ferret, 
Weasel,  Ermine) — The  Martens — (Common  Marten,  Beech  Mar- 
ten, Sable) — The  Otters,  (Common  Otter,  Sea  Otter)— Genus  of 
Dogs — History  and  Habits  of  some  Races,  (Wolves,  Foxes) — Ge- 
nus of  Civets  (Civet,  Common  Wildcat,  Mangouste  of  Egypt) — 
Genus  of  Hyenas — Genus  of  Cats — Habits  (Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard, 
Couguar,  Lynx,  Cat). 

Tribe  of  Amphibia — Zoological  Characters — Habits  (The  Seal,  the 
Morse). 

Order  of  Marsupialia — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  Orga- 
nization— Habits  (Opossums.  Phalangers,  Kangaroos) P.  48 — 72 


xxvi  CONTENTS.  —'VOLUME   I. 

LESSON  VIL 

Order  of  Rod entia— Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  their  Or- 
ganization —  Organization  and  Habits  of  the  genus  Squirrel  — 
Squirrels  properly  so  called,  (Common  Squirrel,  Flying  Squirrel) 
—Organization  and  Habits  of  the  genus  Rat — Marmots — Habits — 
Hibernation — Dormouse — Rats,  properly  so  called,  (Mouse,  Rat) 
— Hamsters — Field-mice — Jerboa — Genus  of  Castors — Organiza- 
tion and  Habits  of  Castors,  properly  so  called — Genus  of  Porcu- 
pines— Organization  and  Habits  of  Porcupines,  properly  so  called 
—Genus  Hare — Organization  and  Habits  of  Hares,  properly  so 
called.  (Common  Hare,  Rabbit) — Genus  of  Guinea-pigs — Chin- 
chilla— General  Remarks  on  Peltries — The  use  of  Hair  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Felt— Glue P.  72— 92 

LESSON  VIII. 

Order  of  Edentata — Zoological  Characters — Division  into  three  Fa- 
milies. 

Family  of  Tardigrada — Organization — Habits  (Ai' or  Sloth). 

Family  of  Ordinary  Edentata  (Armadillos,  Ant-eaters,  Manis). 

Family  of  Monotremata — Peculiarities  of  their  Organization  (Orni- 
thorynchus,  Echidna). 

Order  of  Pachydermata — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of 
their  Organization — Division  into  three  Families. 

Family  of  Proboscidiana — Genus  Elephant — Organization — Habits 
— Use — Ivory,  (Elephants  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Siberia) P.  92 — 100 

LESSON  IX. 

Family  of  Pachydermata  Ordinaria — Genus  Hippopotamus — Genus 
Hog  (Wild  Hog,  Domestic  Hog) — Genus  Rhinoceros. 

Family  of  Solipedes — Horse — Habits — Signs  of  the  Age  of  Horses — 
Principal  Races — Ass — Zebra — Couagga — Onagga P.  100 — 106 

LESSON  X. 

Order  of  Ruminantia — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  their 
Organization — Rumination 

Ruminants  without  Horns — Genus  of  Camels — Camels  properly  so 
called — Peculiarities  of  Organization — Habits  and  Uses,  (Camel 
with  one  Hump,  Camel  with  two  Humps) — Lamas,  Guanaco,  Vi- 
cunia) — Genus  of  Musks. 

Ruminants  with  Horns — Genus  of  Stags — Deer — Habits,  (Fallow- 
Deer,  Common  Stag,  Roebuck,  Rein-Deer,  Elk) — Genus  of  Giraffes 
—  Genus  of  Antelopes  (Gazelle,  Chamois). —  Genus  of  Goats, 
(Wild  Goats,  Bouquetin  or  Ibex,  Domestic  Goat) P.  106 — 117 

LESSON  XI. 

Genus  of  Sheep,  (Argali,  Mouflon,  Domestic  Sheep) — Wool — Meri- 
nos— Genus  of  the  Ox  (Common  Ox,  Auroch,  Buffalo,  Bison,  Yack) 
— Use  of  Oxen — Milk — Butter — Cheese — Leather. 


CONTENTS.  — VOLUME   I.  xxvii 

Order  of  Cetacea — Zoological  Characters — Peculiarities  of  Organiza- 
tion— Habits — Division  into  two  Families — Herbivorous  Cetacea 
— -M anati — Common  Cetacea — Apparatus  of  the  Blowers — Genus 
of  Dolphins,  (Dolphin,  Porpoise) — Genus  of  Narwhals — Genus  o 
Cachalots — Organization — Habits — Spermaceti — Genus  of  Whales 
—Organization  and  Habits  —  Whalebone — Fat — Uses — Whale- 
fishing.  ...-..„ P.  117 — 135 


BOOK    III. 

(Vertebrate  Animals:  Class  II) 

ORNITHOLOGY;  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  BIRDS. 


LESSON  I. 

Class  of  Birds — Zoological  Characters  of  Birds — Peculiarities  of  Or- 
ganization  P  11 — 23 

LESSON  II. 
Egg» — Incubation — Nests — Migration — Classification P.  23 — 29 

LESSON  III. 

Order  of  Accipitres — Zoological  Characters — Habits — Division  into 
two  Families. 

Family  of  Diurnne — Zoological  Characters,  and  Habits  of  Vultures 
(Yellow  Vulture,  King  of  the  Vultures,  Condor,  Percnopterus  of 
Egypt) — Griffins — Genus  of  Falcons — Division  into  two  Groups, 
Noble  and  Ignoble — Falconry,  (Common  Falcon) — Eagles — Fisher 
Eagles — Sparrow-hawks  —  Kites — Buzzards — Harriers — Charac- 
ters and  Habits. 

Family  of  Nocturnse  —  Characters  and  Habits — (Owls  —  Strix — 
Due) 30—46 

LESSON  IV. 

Order  of  Passerinae — Zoological  Characters — Habits — Division  into 

five  Families. 
Family  of  Dentirostres — Shrikes,  Flycatchers,  Cotingas,  Blackbirds, 

Thrushes,  Water-thrushes,  Orioles,  Lyres,  Warblers,  (such  as  the 

Nightingale,  Linnets,  and  Wrens). 
Family  of  Fissirostres,  (Swallows) — Habits — (Swallow,   properly 

so  called,  Martin) — Goatsuckers — Habits 
Family   of  Conirostres — Larks — Titmouse — Buntings — Sparrows — 

Crows,  (Crow,  properly  so  called,  Jackdaw,  Magpie,  Jay) — Birds 

of  Paradise P.  46 — 66 

C 


xxviii  CONTENTS.— VOLUME  I. 

LESSON  V. 

Family  of  Tenuirostres — Nuthatches — Creepers — Humming-birds. 

Family  of  Syndactylae — Bee-eaters — Kingfishers — Hornbills. 

Order  of  Scansoriae — Zoological  Characters — Woodpeckers — Wry- 
necks—  Cuckoos  —  Toucans  — Parrots  —  Habits,  (Maccaw,  Paro- 
quets, Parrots,  properly  so  called) P.  67 — 75 

LESSON  VI. 

Order  of  Gallinaceae — Zoological  Characters — Habits — Hoccos — Pea- 
cocks, (Common  Peacock) — Turkey — Guinea-fowl — Genus  of  Phea- 
sants, (The  Common  Cock,  Common  Pheasant,  Golden  Pheasant 
— Genus  of  Grouse,  (The  Great  Heath-cock,  Partridge,  Quail) — 
Genus  of  Pigeons — Habits — Carrier-pigeons P.  75 — 84 

LESSON  VIL 

Order  of  Grallatorise—  Zoological  Characters — Habits — Division  into 
eight  Families. 

Family  of  Brevipennes — Ostrich — Organization — Habits— Cassowa- 
ries. 

Family  of  Pressirostres — Bustards — Plovers — Lapwings. 

Family  of  Cultrirostres — Cranes,  (Common  Crane)-^-Herons,  (Com- 
mon Heron) — Storks,  (Common  Stork) — Spoonbill. 

Family  of  Longirostres — Genus  of  Curlews — Ibis,  (Sacred  Ibis)— 
Snipe,  (Woodcock,  Common  Snipe) — The  Avosets. 

Family  of  Macrodactyli— Rails — Water  Hens. 

Family  of  Flamingos — Common  Flamingos — Habits P.  85 — 98 

LESSON  VIII. 

Order  of  Palmipedes— Zoological  Characters — Habits — Division  into. 

four  Families. 

Family  of  Divers— Grebes — Auk — Penguins 

Family  of  Longipennes — Petrels — Albatross — Gulls — Sea-swallow8. 
Family  of  Totipalmatse — Genus  of  Pelicans,  (Pelican,  properly  so 

called) — Organization — Habits — Frigate-bird — Boobies. 
Family  of  Lfcrnellirostres —  Genus  of  Ducks  —  Swans  —  Geese  — 

Ducks — Eiders — Genus  of  Mergansers P.  98-~l  10 


BOOK    IV. 

(Vertebrate  Animals:  Class  ///.) 
HERPETOLOGY;    THE   NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   REPTILES. 

LESSON  I. 

General  Characters — Form — Skeleton — Motion — Nervous  System- 
Senses — Nutrition — Apparatus  of  Digestion — Blood — Respiration 
-Lungs — Temperature — secretions — Eggs — Classification. .P.  21—27 


CONTENTS.  — VOLUME  1.  xxix 

LESSON  II. 

Order  of  Chelonians,  or  Tortoises  —  Organization — Division  into 
four  Families— Land  Tortoises — Fresh  water  Tortoises — River 
Tortoises — Sea  Tortoises — Tortoise  Shell :  its  use P.  28 — 39 


LESSON  III. 

Order  of  Sauria — Organization — Classification. 

Family  of  Crocodilida — Circulation — Habits — Crocodiles  properly  so 
called — Alligators.  ^ 

Family  of  Lacertinida — Characters — Monitors — Lizards. 

Family  of  Iguanida — Characters — Dragons — Iguanas — Basilisks. 

Family  of  Geckotida — Characters — Habits. 

Family  of  Chamaeleonida — Characters — Common  Chameleon. 

Family  of  Scincoidea — Characters — Scinques — Fossil  Saurians. 

Order  of  Ophidia,  or  Serpents — Characters. 

Family  of  Anguina — Characters. 

Family  of  Serpentia,  or  True  Serpents — Coluber — Boa — Venomous 
Serpents  —  Rattle  Snake  —  Trigonocephalus — Vipers  —  Naia;  or 
Asps — Effects  and  Treatment  of  the  Bites  of  Vipers,  &c. 

Family  of  Nuda — Characters P.  39 — 64 


LESSON  IV. 

Order  of  Batrachia — Organization — Classification. 

Family  of  Anoura — Metamorphosis  of  Tadpoles— Habits — Frogs— 

Tree-Frogs — Toads — Pi  pa. 

Family  of  Urodela — Salamanders,  or  Water  Newts. 
Family  of  Branchifera — Axolotl — Menobranchus — Proteus — Siren. 
Family  of  Apoda — Caecilia P.  65—76 


(Vertebrate  Animals :  Class  IV.) 

ICHTHYOLOGY;  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  FISHES. 

LESSON  V. 

Class  of  Fishes — General  Characters — Form — Integuments — Skele- 
ton— Muscular  Apparatus — Swimming-Bladder — Senses — Appa- 
ratus of  Digestion — Circulation — Respiration — Animal  Electricity 
—Habits— Fishing— Classification P.  77— 9C 


xxx  CONTENTS.— VOLUME  I. 

LESSON  VI. 

Order  of  Acanthopterygians — Family  of  Percoides,  (Perches,  Rock- 
fish) — Family  of  Mulloides,  (Red-Mullets,  Flying-fishes) — Family 
of  Mailed-cheeks — Family  of  Scienoides — Family  of  Sparoidea — 
Family  of  Menides — Family  of  Squarnipennes — Family  of  Laby- 
rinthiform  Pharyngeals — Family  of  Scomberoides,  (Mackejrel) — 
Mackerel  Fishery — Tunny — Sword-Fish,  &c P.  91 — 99 


LESSON  VII. 

Order  of  Abdominal  Malacopterygians — Division. 

Family  of  Cyprinoides — Carp — Gold-fish — Gudgeon — Tench,  &c. 

Family  of  Esoces — Pike — Exocets,  or  Flying-fishes 

Family  of  Siluroides — Electric  Silurus,  &c. 

Family  of  Salmonides — Common  Salmon — Salmon  Fishing — Trout 

— Smelt. 
Family  of  Clupeae— Herrings — Herring   Fishing — Shad— Sardines 

— Anchovies,  &c P.  99 — 104 


LESSON  VIII. 

Order  of  Subbrachian  Ma  acopterygians — Family  of  Gadoides— 
Cods — Common  Cod — Cod  Fishery — Whiting — Hake — Ling. 

Family  of  Pleuronectes  —  Organization — Plaice  —  Turbot — Sole — 
Family  of  Discoboli. 

Family  of  Echeneis — Remora,  or  Sucking-fish. 

Order  of  Apodous  Malacopterygians — Eels — Common  Eel — Sea  Eel 
— Gymnotus  Electricus. 

Order  of  Lophobranchians — Organization — Hippocampus. 

Order  of  Plectognathi — Organization — Diodon — Trunk-fish.  .P.  109 — 118 


LESSON  IX. 

Division  of  Cartilaginous  Fishes,  or  Chondropterygians — Organiza- 
tion. 

Order  of  Sturiones — Sturgeons — Caviar — Fish-glue. 
Order  of  Selachii — Sharks — Saw-fish — Rays — Torpedo. 
Order  of  Cyclostomi — Lampreys — Myxines P.  1 19 — 128 


CONTENTS.— VOLUME    I. 


BOOK    V. 

(Second  Branch  of  the  Jlnimal  Kingdom :  Invertebrate  Jinimals.) 

CONCHOLOGY;  MOLLUSKS  OR  SOFT  ANIMALS. 

LESSON  I. 

General  Considerations — Mollusca  in  general — Organization — Nerv- 
ous System — General  Form — Skin — Mantle — Shell — Formation  of 
Shell — Digestive  Apparatus — Circulation  of  the  Blood — Respira- 
tion— Senses — Eggs — Classification Page  9 — 18 

LESSON  IT. 

Class  of  Cephalopoda — General  Form — Respiration — Circulation- 
Organs  of  Digestion — Cephalic  Cartilage — Organs  of  Locomotion 
— Organs  of  the  Senses — Nervous  System — Habits — Division  into 
two  Families. 

Family  of  Cephalopoda  Dibranchiata — Octopus  Vulgaris,  or  Poulpe 
— Argonaut — Calmaries — Cuttle-fishes. 

Family  of  Cephalopoda  Tetrabranchiata — Nautilus — Ammonites— 
Belemnites — Foraminifera P.  19 — 32 

LESSON  III. 

Class  of  Gasteropoda— General  Conformation — Classification. 

Order  of  Gasteropoda  Pulmonea — Organization — Division  into  two 
Families.  9 

Family  of  Terrestrial  Pulmonea — Limax — Vaginulus — Helix — Buli- 
mus — Pupa — Chondrus — Clausilia — Achatina. 

Family  of  Aquatic  Pulmonea — Onchidium — Planorbis — Limnoea— 
Physa — Auricula. 

Order  of  Gasteropoda  Pectinibranchiata — Organization — Classifica- 
tion. 

Family  of  Trochoides— Trochus— Turbo— Delphinula— Turritella — 
Cyclostoma — Valvata  —  Paludina — Littorina — Monodon — Phasia- 
nella — Ampullaria — Janthina — Nerita P.  33 — 51 

LESSON  IV. 

Family  of  Buccinoides — Buccinum — Buccinum,  properly  so  called— 
Harpa — Purpura — Cassis  —  Cerithium  —  Murex — Strombus— Vo- 
luta — Ovula  Cypraea — Conus. 

C  * 


xxxii  CONTENTS — VOLUME    I. 

Family   of   Pectinibranchiata    Capuloida — Pileopsis — Hipponyx— - 

Crepidula — Calyptrsea — Siphonaria — Sigaretus. 
Order  of  Gasteropoda  Tubulibranchiata. 
Order  of  Gasteropoda  Scutibrancliiata — Haliotis — Fissurella — Emar- 

ginula. 

Order  of  Gasteropoda  Cyclobranchiata — Patella — Chiton. 
Order  of  Gasteropoda  Inferobranchiata. 
Order  of  Gasteropoda  Tectibranchiata — PJeurobranchus — Aplysia— - 

Dolabella — Bullea— Bulla. 

Order  of  Gasteropoda  Nudibranchiata — Eolidia — Glaucus. 
Order  of  Gasteropoda  Heteropoda — Carinaria. 
Class  of  Mollusca  Pteropoda— Clio  borealis P.  52—6^ 


LESSON  V. 

Class  of  Mollusca  Acephala,  or  Lamellibranchiata— Organization- 
Classification. 

Family  of  Ostracea — Classification — Oysters — Gryphsea — Pecten — 
Lima  —  Malleus — Anornia — Spondylus  —  Perna — Ether  ia — Avi- 
cula — Pearls — Pearl  Fishery — Pinna — Area — Pectunculus — Tri- 
gonia. 

Family  of  Mytilacea — Mussels,  (Mytilus)— Modiolus — Anodonta — 
Unio. 

Family  of  Chamacea — Tridacna — Chama — Isocardia P.  68 — 82 


LESSON  VI. 

Family  of  Cardiacea — Cardium — Donax — Cyclas — Corbis— Tellina 

— Venus — Petricola — Venerupis — Mactra. 
Family  of  Inclusa — Lutraria — Mya— Byssomia — Hiatella — Solen— 

Sanguinolaria — Pholas— Teredo — Fistulana — Gastrochsena — Cla- 

vigella — Aspergillum. 
Class   of  Mollusca   Brachiopoda — General    Characters — Lingula— 

Terebratula — Orbicula.  f 

Class  of  Mollusca  Tunicata,  or  Acephala  Nuda — Biphora — Ascidia 

— Botryllus— Pyrosoma— Parts  of  Shells P.  83— IOC 


BOOK  I. 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  ANIMALS. 


THE  SKELETON. 

Bee  page  97  Tor  explanation. 


GENERAL     NOTIONS 

ON 

NATURAL     HISTORY. 


LESSON    I. 

The.  Natural  Sciences  and  their  Divisions — Definition  of 
Zoology — General  knowledge  necessary  to  its  successful  study — 
The  structure  of  animals,  and  enumeration  of  their  principal 
oryans  —  Classification  of  the.  functions  of  animals. 

1.  The  Natural  Sciences  have  for  their  object,  the  study  of 
those  beings,  the  assemblage  of  which  compose  the  universe. 

This  study  is  divided  into  many  distinct  branches ;  but  these 
branches  are  all  so  linked,  one  to  the  other,  as  to  afford  a  mutual 
support. 

2.  Tbn  different  branches  of  the  Natural  Sciences  are:  Physics, 
Chemistry,  Astronomy,  Meteorology,  and  Natural  History. 

3.  The  name  physics  is  given  to  that  science  which  embraces 
the  consideration   of  the  general    properties  of  matter ;  which 
studies  the  motions  of  bodies,  as  well  as  Heat,  Light,  Electricity, 
Attraction,  and  which  applies  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  to  the 
explanation  of  the  great  phenomena  of  nature. 

4.  Chemistry  has  for  its  object,  the  knowledge  of  the  intimate 
composition  of  bodies,  and  the  various  combinations  which  may 
be  made  from  them.     It  teaches  us  what  are  the  forming  elements 
of  different  bodies,  and  how  these  elements,    by  combining  in 
various  ways,  may  give  rise  to  other  bodies  and  enables  us  to 
understand  the  properties  of  all  these  substances. 

5.  Natural   History,  taken  in   its  most  general  acceptation, 
should  include  the  study  of  the  form,  of  the  structure,  and  of  the 
mode  of  existence  of  all  the  bodies  of  nature,  individually  consi- 
dered ;   but,  by  common  consent,  the  domain   of  this  science  is 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  .the  natural  sciences  ? 

2.  What  are  the  different  branches  of  the  natural  sciences? 

3.  What  does  the  science  of  physics  embrace  the  study  of? 

4.  What  has  chemistry  for  its  object  ?  what  does  it  teach  ? 

5.  In  the  most  general  acceptation  of  the  tenn,  what  is  included   under 
the  name  of  natural  history  ? 


20  GENERAL  NOTIONS  ON   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

more  limited,  and  all  that  has  not  a  direct  relation  to  the  physical 
history  of  our  globe  and  the  beings  spread  over  its  surface,  is  ex- 
cluded. Consequently,  it  does  not  embrace  the  study  of  the  stars, 
nor  of  meteors,  nor  even  of  the  air  which  surrounds  our  globe  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  it  comprises  neither  astronomy  nor  meteorology. 

6.  rfstroitomy,  if  we  may  so  express  ourselves,  is  the  natural 
history   of  the  celestial  bodies ;    by    the  assistance  of  observa- 
tion and  calculation,  it  applies  the  general   laws  of  physics  to 
the  study  of  the  phenomena  which  the  celestial  bodies  present, 
and  thus  determines  their  form,  their  volume,  the  distance  which 
they  are  separated  from   our  globe  as   well  as  from  each  other, 
and  the  movements  which  they  perform  in  space. 

7.  Meteorology  is  in  some  measure  the  natural  history  of  the 
atmosphere;    it   inquires  the  origin   of  thunder,  of  rain,  of  hail, 
of  the  dew,  of  falling  or  meteoric  stones,  (aerolites),  and  of  the 
various  meteors  which  appear  in  the  heavens. 

8.  Natural  History  properly  so  called,  we  repeat,  extends  its 
domain  over  the  structure  of  our  globe,  and  over  all  the  beings 
found  upon  its  surface. 

9.  These  beings  are  separated  into  three  groups  or  kingdoms  ; 
the  mineral    kingdom ;  the  vegetable   kingdom,  and  the  animal 
kingdom ;  in  this   way   Natural  History  is  divided  into   three 
branches  : — 

1 0.  Tke  natural  history  of  Minerals,  and  that  of  the  terrestrial 
globe,  which  is  formed  of  them,  bear  the  names  of  MINERALOGY, 
and  GEOLOGY. 

11.  The  natural  history  of  Plants  is  called  BOTANY. 

12.  The  natural  history  of  Animals  is  termed  ZOOLOGY. 

It  is  the  last  of  these  which  is  to  occupy  our  attention  at 
present. 

13.  The  study  of  animals,  as  well  as  the  study  of  plants,  is 
subdivided  into  three  principal  branches,  according  as  they  are 
considered  in  respect  to: 

1st,  The  characters  which  distinguish  them  one  from  the  other, 
the  climate  they  dwell  in,  their  habits,  &c.; 

2nd,  The  internal  structure  of  their  bodies  ; 

3rd,  The  play  of  their  organs  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
respectively  produce  the  various  phenomena  of  life. 

6.  What  is  Astronomy  ? 

7.  What  is  Meteorology  ? 

8.  What  is  Natural  Histoiy  properly  so  called  ? 

9.  Into  how  many  kingdoms  is  Natural  History  divided  ?  What  are  they  t 

10.  What  is  Mineralogy  ?  Geology? 

11.  What  is  Botany? 

12.  What  is  Zoology  ? 

13.  How  is  the  study  of  Animals  and  Plants  divided? 


GENERAL  NOTIONS  ON  NATURAL  HISTORY.  21 

These  three  branches  of  the  natural  history  of  animals  and  of 
plants,  constitute  three  sciences  which  are  known  under  names 
of  Zoology,  (or,  when  plants  are  referred  to,  descriptive  Botany,) 
Anatomy,  and  Pky&HHogy. 

14.  ANATOMY   treats  of  the    internal    conformation    of  living 
deinr/s :  it  studies  them  by  the  aid  of  dissection,  and  acquaints  us 
with  the  position,  the  form,  and  the  structure  of  their  organs.    In 
as  much   as    it    embraces  the  consideration  of  either  animals  or 
plants,  it  constitutes  two  distinct  sciences :  Zoological  tfitctomy, 
and   Vegetable.  Anatomy. 

15.  PHYSIOLOGY  is  the  Science  of  Life;  it  teaches  the  use  of 
different  organs,  and  the  manner  in  which  these  act,  to   produce 
the  different  phenomena,   (that,   is,   visible   qualities),  proper  to 
living  beings.     Like  Anatomy,  it  may  have  for  its  domain  either 
the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  and  it  is  consequently  divided 
into  Animal  Physiology,  and   Vegetable  Physiology. 

16.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that,  without  the  aid  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology,  the  profound  study  of  natural  history  would  be 
impossible.     When  we  wish  to  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  a  watch, 
we  do  not  limit  ourselves  to  observing  its  exterior  form,  and  to 
noticing  the  manner  in  which  the  hands  turn ;  we  open    it,  we 
examine  every   wheel,  every  chain,   every  spring : — we   would 
separate   them  one  by  one,  and  study  the  relations  which  they 
have  to  each  other,  and  we  would  seek  to  understand  their  use ; 
afterwards,  we  should  again  put  together  all  these  pieces,  and  by 
re-establishing  their  mutual  relations   restore  what  we  had  taken 
from  them  ;  that  is,  their  movements  and  their  play. 

Now,  what  the  watchmaker  does  to  obtain  exact  knowledge  of 
a  watch,  the  naturalist  does,  as  far  as  he  is  capable,  to  study  an 
animal  or  a  plant ;  by  dissection  he  examines  the  interior  of  its 
body,  separates  the  different  organs,  determines  their  relations, 
and  studies  their  form  and  nature ;  then  he  observes  their  play 
during  life,  and,  by  making  experiments,  becomes  acquainted 
with  their  uses.  Unfortunately  the  naturalist  cannot  do  all  that 
the  watchmaker  does;  he  can  destroy,  but  he  cannot  re-construct 
what  he  has  deranged,  and  restore  movement  to  organs  which 
he  has  separated  to  study  their  structure — nevertheless,  by  anato- 
mical investigation,  by  observation  of  the  vital  phenomena  and  by 
physiological  experiments,  he  ascertains  the  mechanism  of  these 

1 4.  Whiit  is  anatomy  ?  what  does  it  teach  ? 

15  Wh  it  is  physiology  ?  what  does  it  teach  ?  what  is  animal  physi- 
ology ?  what  is  vegetable  physiology  ? 

16.  Why  is  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  physiology  necessary  to  under- 
stand  natural  history  ? 


22  GENERAL  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMAL  BODIES. 

complicated  machines,  and  succeeds  in  satisfying  ardent  curiosity, 
which  is  one  of  the  characteristic  traits  of  superior  intelligence. 

No  study  can  be  more  grand,  or  more  interesting ;  in  reveal- 
ing what  is  extraordinary  in  animal  organization,  it  leaves  us 
tilled  with  admiration  at  the  sight  of  this  infinite,  this  most  asto- 
nishing work  of  the  Creator. 

Considered  in  their  mechanical  relations  alone,  the  bodies  of 
animals  present  us  examples  of  complication  and  perfection,  to 
which  our  best  constructed  and  most  perfect  machines  do  not 
approach :  here  we  find  without  number,  models  of  ingenious 
contrivances,  of  which,  the  most  successful  labors  of  the  archi- 
tect or  optician  have  produced  but  imperfect  copies. 

But  these  are  the  least  of  the  wonders  which  the  animal  econo- 
my offers  us.  The  forces,  which  put  into  action  all  the  material 
springs  of  our  body,  are  regulated  and  combined  with  a  wisdom 
which  is  far  beyond  human  science;  and  the  more  we  contemplate 
the  play  of  our  organs,  and  the  faculties  with  which  they  are 
endowed,  the  more  we  feel  the  necessity  of  recurring  to  the  Supe- 
rior Intelligence  who  has  created  this  admirable  production,  and 
who  has  placed  in  it,  a  principle  of  existence  and  of  movement. 

To  study  with  profit  the  particular  history  of  different  animals, 
it  is  necessary,  as  we  see,  to  possesss  some  general  notions  of 
their  anatomy  and  physiology;  and  it  is  this  preliminary  know- 
ledge which  is  to  engage  our  attention  in  the  first  of  our  course. 


OF     THE     GENERAL     COMPOSITION     OF     ANIMAL     BODIES,    AND     THE 
FUNCTIONS    PERFORMED    BY    THEIR    DIFFERENT    ORGANS. 

17  All  living  beings  are  formed  of  a  union  of  solid  and  of 
liquid  parts. 

18.  The  solid  parts  are  composed  of  small  fibres  and  little 
plates,  so  arranged  as  to  contain  the  liquid  parts,  in  spaces  left 
between  them;    they  thus  form  textures  or  tissues  of  various 
kinds,  and  we  give  the  name  of  organization  to  the  disposition 
which  the  tissues  assume. 

19.  Organized   bodies,  that    is,  bodies   having   an   organiza- 
tion  or    mode  of  structure   which   we  have  just  indicated,  are 
the  only  living    beings ;  because  this   internal   conformation   is 
necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  life :  therefore,  non-organized  or 
inorganic  bodies,  as  stones,  and  metals  are  incapable  of  living. 

17.  Of  what  are  living  beings  formed  ? 

18.  Of  what  are  the  solid  parts  composed  ?  what  is  meant  by  organization? 

19.  What  are  organized   bodies?  Why  are  stories  and  metal*  incapable  ol 
living  ? 


ORGANS— APPARATUS-  FUNCTIONS.  23 


20.  The  different  phenomena  by  which  life  manifests  itself,  arc 
always  the  result  of  the  action    of  some  part  of  the  living  body  ; 
and  these  parts,  which  may  be  regarded  as  so  many  instruments, 
are  called  ORGANS. 

21.  Thus,  an  animal  cannot  move  without  the  action  of  certain 
organs  called  muscles,  or  attain  a  knowledge  of  that  which  sur- 

ounds  him  except  by  the  intervention  of  the  organs  of  sense. 

22.  When  several  organs  concur  to  produce  the  same  phenome 
non,  the  assemblage  of  instruments  is  termed  an  APPARATUS. 

23.  We  say,  for  example,  tlie  apparatus  of  locomotion  to  desig- 
nate the  assemblage  of  organs  which  serve  to  transfer  an  animal 
from  one  place  to  another ;  and,  apparatus  of  digestion  to  desig- 
nate the  assemblage  of  organs,  by  the  assistance  of  which  the 
animal  digests  its  food. 

24.  The    action   of   one  of  these  organs,  or  of  one  of  these 
apparatus  or  the  use  for  which  they   are  designed,  is  called  a 
junction. 

25.  We  say,  therefore,  function  of  locomotion,  to  designate  the 
action  of  all  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  of  locomotion  ;  the  function 
of  digestion,  to  designate  the  action  of  the  different  parts  which 
constitute  the  digestive  apparatus;  and  functions  of  the  stomach, 
functions' of  the  intestines,  functions  of  the  teeth,  $~c.,  to  designate 
the  vses  of  these  different  organs.     With  man,  as  well  as  with 
all  quadcupeds,  birds    and   a   majority   of    other  animals,   the 
organs,  and  the  functions  which  the  latter  exercise,  are  very 
various. 

26.  Considered  individually,  the  body  of  the  majority  of  animals 
is  divided  into  three  principal  portions ;  the  htad,  the  trunk,  and 
the  members,  or  extremities. 

27.  The  head,  which  is  not  found  with  all  animals,  oysters  for 
instance,  is  subdivided  into  two  parts ;  the  cranium  or  skull  and 
the  face. 

28.  The  trunk  is  composed  also  of  two  parts;  the  ch*+*  or 
thorax,  and  the  belly  Or  abdomen. 

20.  What  is  meant  by  an  organ? 

21.  Give  an  example  of  an  organ? 

22.  What  is  an  apparatus  ? 

23.  What  are  the  examples  of  an  apparatus  ? 

24.  What  is  a  function  ? 

25.  Give  examples  of  what  is  meant  by  the  term  function. 

26.  How  are  the  bodies  of  animals  divided  ? 

27.  Does  every  animal  possess  a  head  ?   What  are  the  divisions  of  the 

MA  9 

Of  how  many  parts  is  the  trunk  composed  ?  What  are  they  7 
D 


28. 


24  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  BODY. 


29.  In  most  of  the  animals  at  pre>ent  referred  to,  the  members 
exist  in  double  pairs,  and  are  distinguished  as  superior,  or  thora- 
cic, and  posterior  or  abdominal,  or  inferior  members,  or  extrem- 
ities. Certain  animals,  such  as  the  whale,  have  only  a  single  pair ; 
others,  such  as  serpents,  have  none  at  all,  and  others  again  have  a 
considerable  number ;  insects  have  three  pairs  of  feet,  spiders  four 
pairs,  crabs  and  lobsters  five  pairs,  the  wood-louse,  or  palmer 
seven  pairs,  and  certain  worms  have  as  many  even  as  five  nun- 
died  pairs 

30.  In  all  these  animals,  the  body  is  enveloped  on  all  sides  in 
a  resisting  membrane,  endowed  with  sensibility,  which  is  termed 
the  skin ;  it  is  secured  from   the  inside,  and  its  general   form  ia 
deternrrned  by  a  solid  frame,  composed  of  a  number  of  bones, 
called  a  skeleton,    (Frontispiece.)     Farther  on  we  shall  enumerate 
these  bones,  speak  of  their  names  and  various  forms. 

31.  The  skeleton  does  not  exist  with  all  animals;  oysters  and 
snails  for  example  are  without  it ;  and  with  others  again,  such  as 
lobsters,  the  skin  acquires  an  extreme  hardness,  and  answers  in 
place  of  this   bony  frame;  but  with   all  mammiferous  animals, 
birds,  reptiles  and  fishes,  there  exists  a  skeleton,  arranged  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  that  of  man. 

32.  Between  this  internal  frame  and  the  skin  or  external  en- 
velope, are  found  the  muscles,  which  constitute  what  is  commonly 
called  flesh,  whose  function  is  to   produce,  by  their  contractions, 
all  the  motions  which  the  animal  performs;  between  these  muscles- 
are  placed  the  vessels  which  carry  the  blood  to  different  points  of 
the  body,  the  nerves  which  give  sensibility,  &c. 

Within  the  head, and  in  the  trunk  we  find  also  other  parts. 

33.  The  face  presents  several  cavities,  which  serve  to  lodge 
the  organs  of  sight,  of  smell,  and  of  taste. 

34.  The  cranium  or  skull  is  a  sort  of  bony  box,  the  interior 
of  which  is  filled  by  one  of  the   most  important  organs  of  the 

29.  In  the  animals  at  present  referred  to,  how  do  the   members  exist  ? 
How  are  they  distinguished  ?  Have   all  animals  the  same  number  of  mem- 
bers  or  limbs  ? 

30.  What  is  the  skin?  How  is  it  secured?  What  is  its  form  ?  What  is 
the  skeleton  ? 

31.  Does  every  animal  possess  a  skeleton?  What  animals  aie  without  a 
skeleton  ?    Is  there  any  instance  where  the  skin  takes  its  place  ?    What 
classes  of  animals  have  skeletons  ? 

32.  What  aie  muscles  ?  What  is  their  function  ?  What  are  placed  between 
the  muscles  ? 

33.  For  what  purpose  are  the  several  cavities  in  the  face? 

34.  What  is  the  cranium  or  Skull  ?  What  dors  it.  contain  ?  Is   it  lull  ? 
What  is  the  continuation  of  the  brain  called  ?  What  is  found  on  each  side 
of  the  Skull? 


FUNCTIONS  OF  Nl  TUITION  AND  RELATION.    25 

body,  the  brain  which  is  /-'/<,. 
continued  downward  in  a 
thick,  whitish  cord,  called 
the  spinal  marrow.  It  de- 
scends along  the  back,  and 
communicates  with  the 
principal  nerves  of  the 
body.  (PageTZfig.tt} 

35.  On  cutting  through 
the  ribs   and  opening   the 
bony   cage,    which    anato- 
mists call  the  thorax,   and 
which  we  commonly  call  the 
chest  or  breast,  we  find  the 
heart  (c.)  and  lungs,  (P.P.) 

(AV<y.  1.)  A  fleshy  partition,  the  aiafthraqm,  separates  the  chest 
from  the  belly  or  abdontrn,  and  in  this  latter  cavity,  are  contained 
the  stomach,  the  intestines,  the  liver,  the  spleen,  and  many  other 
organs  of  less  importance. 

36.  These  different  organs  fulfil  very  various  functions  ;  some, 
such  as  the  mouth,  the  teeth,  the  stomach,  the  intestines,  and  the 
liver,  serve  digestion  ;  others,  such  as  the  lungs,  (pp)  are  designed 
for  respiration  ;  others  again,  the  heart,  (c.)  for  example,  distribute 
to  all  the  organs,  matter  necessary  for  their   nourishment,   and 
there  are  others  again,  the  use  of  which  is  to  enable  us  to  appre- 
ciate tastes,  and  smells,  to  hear  sounds,  to  see  what  surrounds  us, 
to  feel  what  touches  us,  and  to  transport  us  from  place  to  place. 

37.  These  functions,  in  spite  of  their  diversity,  tend   to   two 
principal  objects,  and  are  consequently  divided  into  two  classes  : 
the  object  of  one  class  of  functions  is  the  preservation  of  Ike  life 
of  the  individual,  and  arc  therefore  denominated,  FUNCTIONS  OP 
NUTRITION;  the  others  place  the  animal  in  relation  with  all  that  sur- 
rounds him,  and,  consequent ly,  are  culled  FUNCTIONS  OF  RELATION. 

38.  The  functions  of  nutrition,  as  their  name  implies,  all  serve 
in  imparting  nutrition  to  the  animal,  either  by  separating  nutri- 
tive matter  from  the  productions  of  the  earth,  by  modifying  this 
matter  and  by  reducing  it  to  a  fluid  or  juice,  Jit  to  be   admitted 
into  the  organs,  or  finally,  by  conveying  into  the  substance   ol 
the  organs  this  nourishing  fluid,  which,  by  its  combinations,  in- 
sures their  maintenance  and  favours  their  growth.    Consequently. 

35.  What  is  the  thorax  ?     What  does  it  contain?     What    separates    the 
thorax  from  the  abdomen?     What  does  the  abdomen  contain  ? 

36.  What  is  the  use  of  these  different  organs? 

37.  What  is  the  chief  objects  of  all  these  various  functions  ? 
38    What  is  the  object  of  the  functions  of  nutrition  ? 


Jf6  FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION  AND  RELATION. 


digestion,  respiration,  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood  belong  to 
this  class  of  functions. 

39.  The  functions  of  relation,  are  all  thofee  which  place  the  ani- 
mal in  relation  with  the  other  beings  of  nature ;  they  are  princi- 
pally the  faculties  of  feeling  in  different  ways,  and   of  moving. 
By  the  aid  of  those  functions  the  animal  is  enabled  to  appreciate 
the  form,  the  colour,  and  the  position  of  objects  surrounding  him  ; 
to  hear  the  sounds  which  they  make,  to  advance  towards  or  retire 
from  them,  in  a  word,  they  serve  to  establish  between  him  and 
the  external  world  a  variety  of  relations  which  are  as  numerous 
as  they  are  useful. 

40.  The  functions  of  nutrition  are  indispensable  to  the   main- 
tenance of  life,  and  they  are  found,  in  a  greater  or  less  number  In 
all  living  or  organised  beings,  and  for  this  reason  thev  are  calied 
thf  functions  of  organic  life,  or  functions  of  vegetative  life. 

41.  The  functions  of  relation,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  exist  in  all 
living  beings;  plants  have  them  not ;  animals  alone  possess  them, 
but,  in  loosing  them  they  do  not  necessarily  ceaseio  live  ;  during 
a  part  of  their  existence,  they  do  not  exercise  them,  and   this 
state  of  repose  of  the  functions  of  relation,  constitutes  sleep. 

42.  In  consequence  of  these  functions  being  peculiar  to  animals, 
they  are  also  called  the  functions  of  animal  life. 

It  is  now  very  easy  to  state,  in  a  few  words,  the  most  impor- 
tant differences  which  exist  between  vegetables  and  animals. 

43.  Vegetables  are  beings   constituted    for   living,    with    the 
power  of  nourishing  and  reproducing  themselves. 

44.  Animals  are  beings  whose  conformation   enables  them  to 
live,  to  be  nourished,  to  reproduce  themselves,  to  feel,  and  to  move. 

The  reader  will  now  easily  comprehend  the  difference  between 
organised  beings,  as  plants  and  animals,  and  inorganic  bodies,  as 
rocks  and  minerals,  which  do  not  possess  the  power  of  nourishing 
and  reproducing  themselves,  the  first  and  most  important  effects 
of  living  organization,  for  without  these  effects,  death  would 
speedily  leave  the  earth  destitute  of  both  animals  and  plants. 

We  shall  first  consider  those  functions  which  belong  to  vege- 
tative life,  and  which  have  nutrition  for  their  object. 

30.  What  is  the  object  of  the  functions  of  relation  ? 

40.  Why  are  Ihe  functions  of  nutrition  called  the   functions   of  organic 
jfe  ?     Do  the  functions  of  nutrition  exist  in  all  organized  beings  ? 

41.  Do  the  functions  of  relation  belong  to  all  living  things  ?   What  is  with- 
out them  1  When  the  functions  of  relation  are  suspended  what  is  the  state  of 
the  aniwial  ? 

4?.  Why  are  these  called  functions  of  animal  life  ? 
43    What  are  vegetables? 
v4.  What  are  animals? 


FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION.  27 

LESSON    II. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Nutrition  of  Organs — Proof  of  the 
*>ristence  of  the  nutritive  movement — Coloring  of  bones — The 
blood  is  the  principal  agent  of  nutrition — use  <>f the  blood— study 
of  this  liquid — physical  properties  of  the  blood — red  and  while 
blood — Globules — Serum — coagulation— venous  and  arterial  blood 
—  'Iransformation  of  venous  into  arterial  blood  by  the  action  oj 
the  air. 

OF  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION. 

OP   THE    NUTRITIVE    ACT. 

1.  NUTRITION  is  the  vital  act  by  which  the  different  parts  o, 
the  bodies  of  organized  beings  renew  the  materials  of  which  they 
aj-e  composed. 

2.  To  effect  this  renovation,  the  animal  appropriates    certain 
substances  within  his  reach,  which  are  adapted  to   this  purpose, 
and  these  substances  being  introduced  into  the  body  and  distri- 
buted to  the  different  organs,  are  there  retained  and  become  con- 
stituent parts  of  them. 

3.  At  the  same  time  that  the  organs  thus  acquire  new  mate- 
rials, they  lose  others,  which,  having  become  old  and  useless,  are 
in  some  way  detached  and  expelled. 

4.  Thus,  then,  the  new  materials  take  the  place  of  those  which 
have  been  detached  from  the  organ,  so  that  its  substance  is,  little 
by  little,  renewed. 

5.  When  a  living  being  thus  incorporates  with  its  organs  more 
material  than  it  loses,  its  volume  augments,   and  of  course  its 
weight  increases: — Thus,  by  the  act  of  nutrition,  the  infant, 
which  at  birth  weighed  only  five  or  six  pounds,  is  found  to  have 
acquired,  when  it  has  reached  the  age  of  twenty-tive  years,  more 
than  a  hundred  weight,  and  a  proportionate  increase  in  size;  but 
if  the  contrary  be  true,  and  the  living  being  loses  more  material 
than  it  incorporates  with  its  organs,  it  grows  thin,  as  is  often  ob- 
served when  the  adult  approaches  extreme  age ;  and  when  these 
two  phenomena  are  in  just  equilibrium,  its  weight  remains  the  same 

6.  This  nutritive  act  takes  place  in  all  living  beings. 

1.  What  is  nutrition  ? 

2.  How  do  animals  renew  the  materials  of  which  their  bodies  are  com- 
posed ? 

3.  Do  the  organs  always  retain  the  materials  acquired  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  size  of  the  organs  not  increased  by  the  constant  accession 
of  new  materials  ? 

5  When  an  organ  receives  more  material  than  it  loses,  what  is  the  con 
sequence  ?     When  an  organ  loses  more  than  it  receives  what  happens  ? 
6.  Does  the  act  of  nutrition  take  olace  in  all  things  1 
D2 


PROOF  OF  THE  ACT  OF  NUTRITION. 


7.  Brute  bodies,  as  stones  and  minerals   are  not  nourished. 
The  materials  of  which  these  are  composed  remain  the  same  as 
long  as  they  exist,  and  if  their  volume   increase  it  is  simply  by 

-the  juxta-position  of  substances  of  the  same  nature  as  their  own. 

8.  But  animals  and  plants  on  the  contrary  grow  by  intux'tus- 
cfption,  that  is  to  say,  by  the  deposite  of  new  particles   within 
their  very  substance. 

9.  The  continual   process  of  composition    and   decomposition 
which    constitutes    the  nutritive    act,  is  not  perceptible  to  our 
senses ;  but  observations  have  been  made  which  remove  all  doubt 
of  its  existence,  even  in  the  bones,  the  hardest  and  deepest  seated 
parts  of  the  body.     An  English  surgeon,  Belcher,  eating  of  a  pig 
which  had  been  fed  by  a  dyer,  remarked  that   the  bones  of  the 
animal  were  red,  and  attributing  this  peculiarity  to  the  colored  sub- 
stances which  it  had  eaten,  conceived  an  idea  that  analogous 
means  might  serve  to  render  visible  the  effects  of  the  nutritive 
act ;  he    made  experiments   which,   repeated   by  a  number   of 
learned  men,  were  crowned  with  entire  success. 

10.  After  feeding  animals  on   madder  for  a  certain  time,  it  is 
always  found  that  the  bones  are  stained  red  by  a  deposite  of  this 
coloring  matter  in  their  substance  ;  and  after  having  thus  fed  an 
animal,  and  then  suspending  the  use  of  the  madder,  it  is  found, 
after  a  certain  period,  that  the  red  matter  which  must  have  been 
deposited  in  the  substance  of  these  organs,  is  no  longer  there,  but 
has  been,  as  we  must  conclude,  ejected.     Now,  these  facts  may 
be  explained  by  the  continuous  process  of  composition  and  de- 
composition, to  which  is  given  the  name  of  nutrition. 

1 1.  This  renovation  of  the  constitutent  materials  of  the  body 
is  indispensable  to  the  continuance  of  life:  when  it  stops  in  an 
organ,  that  organ  decays,  and  when  it  ceases  throughout,  death 
soon  follows. 

12.  The  nutrition  of  organised  bodies  is  effected  by  the  aid  of 
a  liquid  which  conveys  into  all  the  organs,  the  necessary    ma- 
terials for  their  sustenance,  and  which  serves  at  the  same  time,  to 
carry  away  from  their  substance  those  particles  which  are  detached 
hy  the  nutritive  act,  and  destined  to  be  expelled  from  the  body 
lii  plants,  this  liquid  is  the  sap,  and  in  animals  it  is  the  blood. 

7.  Are  sto >i<  s  nourished  ?     How  do  they  increase  in  size  ? 

8.  How  do  animals  and  plants  grow  in  size? 

9.  Is  the  nutritive  act  perceptible  to  ourselves? 
JO.  How  was  it  proved? 

11.  What  is  the  consequence  if  nutrition  ceases  in  an  organ?  If  in  aU 
the  organs? 

12.  How  is  the  nutrition  of  organized  bodies  effected?     What  are  the 
names  01  this  liquic  * 


rrft 
VNIVERSfTY 

...       Of 
OF  THE  BLOOD. 


f  THE         ^ 

'IRSfTY    ) 
Of  / 


OF  THE  BLOOD. 

13.  The  Blood  is  fhe  nutritive  liquid  of  animals 

14.  It  is  this  liquid  which   maintains  life  in  the  organs,  and 
furnishes  them  with  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed. 

1/5.  The  blood  is  the  source  of  all  the  humors  formed  in  the 
body  ;  as  the  saliva,  tears,  bile,  &c. 

16.  In  man,  anil  all  animals  resembling  him  in  organization, 
the  blood  is  red.     In  a  great  number  of  others,  it  is  colourless,  or 
of  a  slight  yellow  or  lilach  tint. 

17.  The  animals  which   have  red  b/nnri,  are  the  mammalia, 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes, and  certain  worms  called  "Annelides." 

18.  The  animnls  with  white  blood,  are  the  insects,  theArach- 
nides.  (that  is  spiders,  and  other  animals  resembling  them,)  the 
Crustacea,  (a  class  of  animals  composed  of  crabs,  lobsters,  &c.) 
themollusea,  (or  animals  resembling  snails  and  oysters)  and  some 
others. 

19.  It  is  a  vulgar  error  to  suppose  that  flies  have  red  blood  in 
the  head :  when  one  of  these  animals  is  crushed  we  see,  it  is  true, 
an  effusion  of  reddfsh  liquid,  but  this  is  not  blood,  and  comes 
from  the  eyes  of  these  little  beings,  whose  blood,  like  that  of  all 
insects,  is  white. 

20.  Blood  is  more  or  less  thick  and  opaque.     When  examined 
by  a  microscope  we  perceive  that  it  is  formed   of  two  distinct 
parts,  namely  : — 

1st.  Of  a  yellowish,  transparent  liquid,  called  Scrum. 

2nd  Of  a  great  number  of  solid  particles  of  extremely  small 
size  which  swim  in  the  serum,  and  which  are  called  the  globules 
of  the  blood. 

21.  To  these  globules  the  blood  is  indebted  for  its  red  color. 
They  are  flattened  and  have  a  considerable  resemblance  to  small 
pieces  of  money  slightly  drilled  out  in  the  middle  (page  30.  Jig.  2.) 
Their  form  and  size  vary  in  different  animals. 

13.  What  is  blood? 

14.  What  is  the  use  of  the  blood  ? 

15.  What  is  the  blood  the  source  of? 

16.  What  is  the  color  of  the  blood  ? 

17.  What  animals  have  red  blood  ? 
18   What  animals  have  white  blood  ? 

19.  Have  flies  red  blood'.' 

20.  Is  the  blood  transparent?  Of  how  many  parts  is  it  composed?  What 
are  these  parts  called?      What  is    serum?  What  are  the  globules  of  the 
blood? 

21.  Upon  what  does  the  red  color  of  the  blood  depend?  What  is  the  form 
of  the  globules?  Are  the  size  and  form  of  the  globules  the  same  in  all  ani. 
mals  ? 


30 GLOBULES  OF  THE  Br.OOD. 

Fig.  2.  *  22.  In  man,  the  dog,  the  horse,  and  all  other  ani- 
mals of  the  class  of  mammalia,  the  globules  of  the 
blood  are  circular,  (a.  />.) 

23.  In  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  the  globules  are 
of  an  oval  form,  (c.) 

24.  They  are  smallest  in  the  mammalia,  and  largest 
in  reptiles  and  fishes. 

25.  The  blood  of  the  mammalia  and  birds  contains 
the  greatest  number  of  globules. 

26.  In  animals  with  white  blood,  the  globules  are 
colourless,  generally  circular,  and  very  few  in  number. 

[  When  these  globules  are  carefully  examined,  with  a  powerful 
microscope,  it  is  seen  that  each  one  is  composed  of  two  distinct 
parts,  and  that  they  consist  of  a  sort  of  bladder  or  membranous 
sack,  in  the  middle  of  which  there  is  found  a  spheroidal  corpus- 
cule, — (a  diminutive  body.) 

[  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  this  bladder  is  flattened,  and 
forms,  around  a  central  nucleus,  a  circular  border,  of  greater  or 
less  depth,  so  that,  as  a  whole,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
p.     n         disk,  (a.)  swelled  or  bulged  in  the  middle.     The 
*$'    '       external  envelope  of  the  globules  consists  of  a 
sort  of  jelly,  which  is  of  a  more  or  less  beautiful 
red  colour,  and  is  easily  divided:   it  is  to  the 
presence  of  these  vesicles,  (little  bladders,)  that 
the  blood  owes  its  colour.     The  central  nucleus 
of  the  globules  is  more  consistant,  and  is   not 
coloured.] 

27.  In  its  ordinary  state,  the  blood  is  always  fluid,  and  the 
globules  swim  freely  in  the  serum;  but  when  drawn  from  the 
vessels  which  contain  it,  and  left  to  itself,  it  is  not  slow  to  con- 
geal, and  to  present  the  phenomenon  of  coagulation. 

*  Fig.  2. — a,  blood  of  a  man, — ft,  blood  of  a  sheep, — c,  blood  of  a  sparrow. 
These  globules  are  magnified  one  thousand  limes  in  diameter. 

t  Fig.  3. — «,  globule  of  the  blood  of  a  frosr,  magnified  about  seven  hun- 
dred times,  and  seen  in  profile:  6,  the  same  globule  seen  in  front;  the 
envelope  is  torn  so  as  to  show  the  central  nucleus. 

22.  What  is  the  form  of  the  globules  in  the  mammalia? 

23.  In  what  class  of  animals  are  the  globules  oval? 

24.  In  what  animals  are  they  smallest?     In  what  animals  largest? 

25.  What  animals  have  the  greatest  proportion  of  globules  in  the  blood  ? 

26.  What  is  the  form  and  colour  of  the  globules  in  white  blooded  animals? 

27.  What  is  the  ordinary  state   of  the  blood  ?     When   drawn  from  the 
vessels,  and  left  to  itself,  what  takes  place  ? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


28.  When  blood  coagulates,  the  globules  unite  themselves  to- 
gether in  a  mass,  and  little  by  little  separate  from  the  serum,  to 
form  a  clot  more  or  less  solid. 

[Chemistry  teaches  us,  that  in  man,  100  parts  of  blood,  contain 
about  66  parts  of  water,  from  6  to  7  hundredths  of  albumen,  (1), 
from  14  to  15  nundredths  of  fihrin,  (2),  and  colouring  matter, 
some  thousandths  of  fatty  matters,  of  several  salts,  and  traces  ol 
the  peroxide  of  iron.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  we  cannot 
discover  in  the  blood,  those  substances  which  are  found  in  the 
different  humors,  formed  at  its  expense  ;  but  if  we  arrest  the  action 
of  those  organs  that  are  charged  with  secreting  these  humors,  we 
then  find  in  the  blood,  the  matters  in  question.  We  must  therefore 
conclude  that  they  always  exist  in  it,  but  in  quantities  too  small  to 
be  appreciated  by  our  methods  of  analysis;  and  that  the  organs  just 
alluded  to,  do  not  form  them,  but  separate  them  from  the  blood  in 
proportion  as  they  are  presented.] 

29.  The  blood  contains  all  the  materials  necessary  to  the    re- 
paration and  growth  of  the  organs;  consequently,  it  furnishes  to 
all  parts  the  matter,  of  which  they  are  in  need  for  their  nourish- 
ment, and  also  imparts  the  excitement   necessary  to  the   main- 
tenance of  life. 

30.  To  appreciate  fully  the  importance  of  the  office  filled   by 
the  blood  in  the  bodies  of  living  animals,  it  is  only  necessary   to 
bleed  one,  and  observe  the  effects  of  the  operation. 

31.  When  the  flow  of  blood  continues  for   a  long   time,  the 
animal  falls  into  syncope,  (fainting,)  and  if  the  bleeding   be    not 
arrested,  all  motion  ceases  in  a  few  moments  ;    respiration  is 
stopped,  and  life  is  no  longer  manifest  by  external  sign.     If  the 
animal  be  left  in  this  condition,  reality  soon  takes  the  place  of  ap- 
pearance, and  death  speedily  follows.     But  if  we  inject  into   his 
veins,  blood  similar  to  that  which  he  has  lost,  we  see  with  astonish- 
ment this  semblance  of  a  corpse  return  to  life  ;  in  proportion  as  ad- 

(1.)  Albumen,  is  a  kind  of  matter  that  enters  into  the  composition  of  most 
of  the  organic  tissues  of  animals,  and  almost  by  itself  constitutes  the  white 
of  egg's.  It  can  be  dissolved  in  water,  but  by  the  action  of  he.it,  it  solidifies 
and  becomes  insoluble. 

(2.)  Fibrin,  is  the  basn  of  muscular  flesh.  It  can  be  separated  from  b'ood 
by  beating  it  with  rods  boforo  it  coagulates;  the  fibrin  adheres  to  the  rods 
in  the  form  of  very  elastic  whitish  filaments. 

28.  When  blood  coagulates  what  takes  place  ? 

29.  What  does  the  blood  contain  ?     Wiiat  other  use  has  the  blood  besides 
that  of  nourishing  the  organs  ? 

30.  How  can  you  show  the  importance  of  the  blood  to  living  animals? 
.11.   How  is  an  animal  effected  by  bleeding  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  inject- 

ing blood  into  the  veins  of  an  animal  that  lias  been   exhausted  by   bleeding' 


32 NUTRITIVE  QUALITY  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

_.  ^      ^ 

ditional  quantities  of  blood  are  introduced  into  the  vessels,  lie 
revives  more  and  more,  and  soon  breathes  freely,  moves  with 
facility,  resumes  his  habitual  gait  and  is  completely  re-established. 

32.  This  operation,  known  under  the  name  of  transfusion,  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  that  has  been  performed, 
and  proves,  better  than  all   we  could  say,  the  importance  of  tne 
action  of  the  globules  of  the  blood  upon  the  living  organs  ;  for  if 
we  make  use  of  serum,  that  is,  blood   deprived  of  its  globules,  in 
the  same  manner,  we  produce  no  more  effect  than  if  we  had  used 
pure  water,  and  death  is  not  a  less  inevitable  consequence  of  the 
haemorrhage. 

33.  The  influence  of  the  blood  upon  the  nutrition  of  the  organs 
may  be  demonstrated  with  equal  facility. 

34.  When  by  mechanical  means  we  diminish,  in  an  appreciable 
and  permanent  degree,  the  quantity  of  this  fluid  received   by  an 
organ,  we  perceive  that  it  dwindles  in  size,  and  often  even  decays 
and  becomes  reduced  to  almost  nothing. 

35.  On  the  other  hand  we  observe,  that  the  more  any  one  part 
of  the  body  is  exercised,  the  greater  the  quantity  of  blood  it  re 
ceives,  and  the  more  it  augments  in  volun.e.     Indeed,  every  one 
knows  that  muscular  exercise   tends  most  to  the  developement  of 
those  parts  which  are  the  seat  of  it ;  that  in  dancers  for  example, 
the  muscles  of  the  legs,  the  calf  in  particular,  acquire  an  extraor- 
dinary size,  while  with  bakers  and  other  men  who  perform  hard 
labor  with  their  arms,  the  superior  members  or  extremities  be- 
come more  fleshy  than  any  other  parts.     Now,   the   muscles  re- 
ceive more  blood  when  in  action  than  when  in  repose,  and  by  this 
afflux  of  blood,  the  nutritive  act  of  which  they  are  the  seat,  is 
stimulated  and  their  volume  is  increased. 

36.  The  blood  in  giving  nourishment  to  the  organs,  and  in  ex- 
citing the  vital  movement,  undergoes  a  change ;  it  is  impoverished 
not  only  by  the  deposite  of  the  particles  which  the  organs  ap- 
propriate to  themselves,  and  incorporate  with  their  substance, 
but  also  by  receiving  the  old  materials  which  are  separated  from 
the  tissue  of  these  same  organs,  and  which,  having  become  useless, 
or  even  injurious,  have  to  be  expelled  from  the  body. 

32.  What  is  the  operation  of  injecting  blood  into  the  veins  called?  Wha 
iocs  transfusion  prove  ? 

33.  Does  the  blood  influence  the  nutrition  of  the  organs  ? 

34    What  is  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  blood  received  by 


an  organ 


35.  What  effect  does  exercise  produce  on  the  different  parts  of  the  body  ? 
Why  is  the  volume  of  the  muscles  increased  when  they  are  much  exercised  ? 
3fi.  Does  the  bLod  undergo  any  change  in  nourishing  the  organs  ? 


VENOUS  AND  ARTERIAL  BLOOD. 33 

37.  Consequently,  there  is  a  very  great  difference  between  the 
blood  going  to  the  organs,  and  that  which  has  already  passed 
through  them,  and  which  has  contributed  to  their,  nourishment. 

38.  To  the  first  is  given  the  name  of  untr.at  6.000,  and  to  the 
second,  the  name  of  venous  blood. 

39.  Arterial  blood  is  of  a  vermilion    red ;  it  coagulates  very 
easily  and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  globules ;  and  finally,  it 
is  essentially  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  life. 

40.  Venous  blood  is  of  a  blackish  red  color;  it  is.  less  coagula- 
ble  and  less  rich  than  the  arterial  blood,  but  what  distinguishes  it 
above  every  other  quality,  is,  that  after  having  passed  through 
them,  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  exciting  the  vital  movement  in  the 
organs. 

41.  Notwithstanding,  the  blood  thus  vitiated    does   notecase 
to  be  useful,  because  it  easily  regains  its  vivifying  qualities. 

42.  By  action  of  the  air,  the  venous  blood  is  changed  into  arte- 
rial blood ;  it  regains  its  vermilion  color,  and  becomes  again  fit 
for  the  maintenance  of  life. 

43.  It  is  this  transformation  of  venous  blood  into  arterial  blood, 
which  constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  respiration. 


LESSON    III. 

Functions  of  Nutrition — Circulation  of  the.  Blood-  the  Heart 
—  Arteries —  Veins — Motion  of  the  blood  in  the  bodies  of  the 
Mam  mi  force — Mechanism  of  the  circulation — Phenomenon  oj 
the  pulse — Venous  absorption — Secretion. 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

1 .  The  blood  does  not  remain  at  rest  in  the  body ;  it  is  con- 
stantly passing  through  the  organs  which  it  nourishes,  and  re- 
turning to  the  respiratory  apparatus  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
air,  to  be  again  distributed  to  the  organs. 

37.  Is  the  blood  when  it  con  es  from  an  organ  in  the  same  condi'ion  aa 
when  it  entered  >. 

38  What  is  the  blood  ca  led  that  goes  to  the  organs  ?  What  is  it  called 
when  it  ln«  left  the  orgnns  1 

3!'.   \V  hat  art-  the  properties  of  artcrnl  b'ood? 

40.  What  ore  t  e  properti  s  of  the  ven  us  blood?    What  is  the  essential 
quality  that  distinguishes  venous  from  arterial  i.lood/ 

41.  Why  does  blood  thus  vitiated  cease  to  be  useful  ? 

42.  Tiow  is  venous  blood  changed  into  artetial? 

43.  What  does  this  transformation  of  venous  into  arterial  blood  constitute  1 
1.   Is  the  blood  at  rest  in  the  body? 

3* 


34 CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

2.  The  continuous  passage  of  the.  blood  from  the  respiratory 
apparatus  toward*  all  the  organs  of  the  body,  and  the   return  of 
the  blood  from  these  organs  to  the  apparatus  of  respiration,  con- 
stitute* the  phenomenon  of  ihr  circulation. 

3.  This  liquid,  as  we  have  seen,  moves  continually  in  a  sort  of 
circle  ;  after  having  traversed  all  the  parts  which  it  is  destined  to 
nourish,  it  returns  to  a  particular  organ  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  air,  then  goes  back  to  the  parts  whence  it  came,  passes  through 
them,  returns  again  to  the  apparatus  of  respiration,  and  so  con 
tinues  as  long  as  life  endures. 

4.  THE  APPARATUS  OP  THE  CIRCULATION,  that  is  to  say,  the  as- 
semblage  of  organs  destined  to  effect  this  conveyance  or  trans- 
portation of  the  blood,  is  composed : 

FIRST.   Of  canal*.,  or  pipes,  in  which  the  blood  runs. 
SECOND.   Of  t/te  heart  which  serres  to  set  it,  in  motion. 

5.  The  heart  is  the  centre  of  the  apparatus  of  the  circulation  ; 
it  is  a  sort  of  fleshy  pouch  communicating  with  the  blood  vessels, 
which  receiving  the  blood  into  its  interior,  and  which,  by  contrac- 
ting on  itself  from  time  to  time,  forces  this  fluid  into  the  canals, 
and  thus  keeps  up  a  continual  current  in  them. 

6.  Almost  all  animals  have  a  heart.     This  organ  exists  not 
only  in  the  mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  but  also  in  snails, 
oysters,  and  other  animals  of  the  class  of  mollusca ;  in  crabs  and 
lobsters ;  in  spiders,  &c. 

7.  The  blood  vessels  are  of  two  kinds,  namely: 

8.  *st.  The  arteries  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  to 
all  parts  of  the  body. 

9.  2nd.  The  veins  which  bring  back  this  liquid  from  all  parts 
of  the  body  to  the  heart. 

1 0.  The  arteries  spring  from  the  heart  and  divide  into  branches 
which  decrease  in  t>izrt  and  increase  in  number  as  they  advance, 
and  are  distributed  to  the  very  numerous  parts,  distant  from  the 
heart. 

2.  What  constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  the  circulation  ? 

3.  After  having  traversed  all  the  parts  it  is  destined  to  nourish,  wha 
becomes  of  the  blood  ? 

4.  Wh  it  is  meant  by  the  apparatus  of  the  circulation  ?     Of  what  part* 
is  it  composed  ? 

5    What  is  a  heart  ? 

6.  Have  all  animals  a  heart  ? 

7.  How  many  kinds  of  blood  ves  els  are  there  ? 
8    What  is  the  func'ion  of  the  arteries  ? 

9.  What  is  the  function  of  the  veins  T 
10.  Where  do  the  arteries  take  their  rise?  How  are  they  distributed T 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BT.OOD 


11.  The  veins  present  a  similar  disposition,  but  which  is  de- 
signed to  produce  an  entirely  opposite  result,  because  the  blood 
in  these  vessels,  pursues  an  inverse  course.  They  are  very 
numerous  at  a  distance  from  the  heart,  but,  little  by  little,  they 
unite  to  form  larger  canals  which,  in  turn,  again  unite,  so  that 
they  terminate  at  the  heart,  in  only  one  or  two  large  trunks. 


12.  The  ultimate  rami- 
fications of  the  arteries  in 
the  substance  of  the  or- 
gans, are  continued  into 
the  radicles  of  the  veins, 
so  as  to  form  a  series  of 
uninterrupted  and  narrow 
canals  through  which  the 
blood  passes  through  the 
organs. 

^13.  To  these  delicate 
canals,  which  establish  the 
communication  between 
the  termination  of  the  arte- 
ries and  the  beginning  o[ 
the  veins,  is  applied  to  the 
name  of  capillary  vessels, 
(Fig.  4.)  This  name  has 
been  given  to  them  in 
consideration  of  their  ex- 
treme fineness,  which 
makes  them  comparable 
to  hairs.* 


Fig.  4. 


•  Explanation  of  Fig-.  4.— This  figure  does  not  represent  the  natural 
arrangement  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels;  it  is  an  ideal  diagram, 
designed  to  convey  some  notion  of  the  way  in  which  the  blood,  in  completing 
the  entire  route  of  the  circulation,  passes  twice  through  the  heart,  and  also 
passes  through  the  two  systems  of  capillary  vessels,  namely,  those  of  the 
lungs  in  getting  from  the  pulmonary  artery  into  the  pulmonary  veins,  and 
those  of  all  the  organs,  in  passing  from  the  minute  terminating  branches  or 
the  aorta, into  the  radicals  of  the  veins  which  end  in  the  venae  cavse.  The 
two  halves  of  the  heart,  which  in  reality,  are  only  separated  by  a  partition, 
are  here  completely  isolated,— ^,  left  side  of  the  heart, — a,  the  aorta,— e,  o,  p, 
capillary  vessels,  which  terminate  the  arteries,  all  of  which  spring  from  the 
aorta, — »,  general  venous  system, — rf,  right  side  of  the  heart, — a,p,  pulmo 
nary  artery, — v,p,  pulmonary  vein.  The  arrows  po'nt  in  the  direction  o/ 
ihe  current. 

11.  How  are  the  veins  arranged? 

12.  How  do  the  ultimate  ramification  of  the  arteries  terminate? 

13.  What  are  the  capillary  vessels  ?     Why  are  they  so  called  ? 

E 


3fi 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


14.  At  the  extremity  opposite  to  that  where  we  find  the  capil- 
lary  vessels,  the  arteries  and  veins  also  communicate  with  each 
other,  by  the  intervention  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart. 

1.5.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is,  that  the  vascular  appara- 
tus forms  a  complete  circle  in  which  the  blood  moves,  constantly 
returning  to  its  point  of  departure. 

16.  The  circulating  circle  may  be  compared  to  a  tree,  the 
trunk  of  which  is  doubled  upon  itself,  so  as  to  cause  the  ultimate 
ramifications  of  the  branches  to  meet  the  ultimate  divisions  01 
the  roots ;  the  upper  portion  of  the  trunk  and  roots  would  rep- 
resent the  veins. 

17.  In  all  those  animals 
which  most  resemble  man, 
(anatomically,)  such  as  the 
monkey,  the  dog,  horse,  ox, 
&c.,  the  heart  is  placed  be- 
tween the  two  lungs,  in  the 
cavity  of  the  chest,  which 


Fig.  5. 


ac 


ac 


vsc 


as  c 


a    anatomists  call  the  thorax, 

vg  (Fit/.  5.) 

18.  The  general  form  of- 
the  heart  is  that  of  an  inver- 
ted cone,  the  apex  down, 
and  a  little  to  the  left.  The 
size  of  the  heart  is  very 
nearly  that  of  the  fist  of  the 
individual  to  whom  it  be- 
longs.* 


*  Explanation  of  Fig.  5. — The  Inngs  of  a  man  with  the  heart  and  great 
vessels  which  arise  from  it, —  P,P.  the  lungs,—  t.  the  trachea  which  conveys 
air  to  the  lungs, — c.  the  heart, — od.  right  auricle  of  the  heart, — vd.  right  veri. 
tricle  of  the  heart, — og.  left  auricle  of  the  heart, — vp.  left  ventricle  of  the 
heait, — ccs.  and  vci.  superior  and  inferior  venae  cuvse,  emptying  into  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart, — np.  pulmonary  artery  going  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle to  the  lungs, — vp.  pulmonary  veins,  passing  from  the  lungs  to  the  left 
auricle  of  the  heart, — an.  the  aorta, — ac.  carotid  arteries  arising  from  the 
aorta,  and  conveying  blood  to  the  head, — asc.  snbclavian  vein,  coming  from 
the  arms  and  emptying  into  the  superior  vena  cava. 


each 


14    Have  the   arteries   and  veins   any  other  communication   with 
«   lie.  than  by  the  capillary  vessels? 

15.  What  is  the  result  of  the  arrangement  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessel* 
is  described  ? 

16.  To  what  may  we  compare  the  circulating  circle? 

17.  What  is  the  "situation  of  the  heart  ? 

18.  What  is  the  form  of  the  heart  ?     What  is  its  size? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


Fig.  6. 


19.  This   organ   is  enveloped  in  a  double,  membranous  sac, 
called  pericardium,  and  is  suspended  in  the  pericardium   by  the 
vessels  which  arise  from  its  superior  and  enlarged  entremity ;  but 
it  does  not  adhere  at  any  other  point  of  its  surface  to  the  neigh- 
bouring parts. 

20.  The  substance  of  the  heart  is  almost  entirely  fleshy ;  it  is 
a  hollow  muscle,  the  cavity  of  which  communicates  with  the  arte- 
ries and  veins. 

21.  In  man  and  all  the  mammalia, 
as  well  as  birds,  it  has  four  distinct 
cavities.     A  thick,  vertical  partition 
divides  it  into  two  halves,  each  one 
forming  two  cavities,  one  above  the 
other ;  a  ventricle,  and   an    auricle. 
(Fig.  6.) 

22.  The   two   ventricles    occupy 
the  inferior  part  of  the  heart,  and  do 
not  communicate  with  each    other, 
but  each  one  opens  into  the  auricle 
above  it. 

23.  The  cavities  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart  contain    arterial 
blood,  and  those  of  the  right  side,  venous  blood. 

24.  The  vessels   which  convey   arterial    blood  .into    all    the 
organs   take  their  origin    from  the  left   ventricle  of    the   heart, 


Explanation  of  Fig.  6.— The  heart  opened  to  show  the  cavities  in  the  in- 
terior of  this  organ.— or/,  right  auricle  of  the  heart,— w/,  right  ventricle  of 
the  heart, — oo-,  left  auricle  of  the  he  »rt, — v>r,  lei  ventricle  of  the  heart, — 
vcs.  and  vr,i,  superior  arid  inf-ri  r  venae  cavae,  emptying 'into  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart, — ap,  pulmonary  artery  going  from  the  right  ventricle  to 
the  lungs, — »/j,  pulmonary  veins  passing  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle 
of  the  heart, — a»,  the  aorta, — o,  left  auriculo- ventricular  opening, — o', 
right  auriculo.ventricular  opening.  The  arrows  point  out  the  direction  of 
the  flow  of  the  blood  in  the  different  vessels. 


19.  Has  the  heart  any  covering  proper  to  it?    How  is  it  suspended  in  the 
pericardium  I     Does  the  heart  adhere  to  thd  surrounding  parts  ? 

20.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  heart  ?     Is  the  heart  solid  ? 

21.  How  many  cavities  has  the  heart?  How  is  it  divided  ?  What  are  the 
cavities  of  the  heart  callttd  ? 

22.  What  part  of  the  heart  is  occupied  hy  the  ventricles?     Do  the    veil 
tricles  communicate  with  each  other  ?     Dn  they  communicate  with  the  auri- 
cles ?     How  is  the  auricle  situated  in  regard  to  the  ventricle  ? 

23.  What  kind  of  blood  is  cwitnined  in  the  cavities  of  the  left  side  of  the 
heart?  In  which  side  of  the  heart  is  found  the  venous  blood  ? 

24.  From  what  part  of  the  heart  do  these  vessels  arise  which  carry  arte 
rial  blood  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  great  arterial  trunk  as  it  arises  frorr 
the  heart? 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ARTERIFS. 


Fig.  7. 


at 


ax 


through  the  medium  of 
a  single  trunk,  called  the 
aotlu,  (Fig.  7.)* 

25.  This  great  artery 
first  mounts  upwards  to- 
wards the   base  of  the 
neck,  then  bends  down- 
wards, forming  a  sort  of 
crook,  passes  behind  the 
heart  and  descends  ver- 
tically,  in  front  of    the 
spine,  to  the  lower  part 
of   the    belly.       In     its 
course,    the  aorta  gives 
off  a  great    number    of 
branches,  the  principal  of 
which  are : 

26.  1st.  Thetwocflro- 
tid  arteries  mount  along 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  and 
supply   the    head    with 
blood  ;  (fig.  7,  ac.) 

27.  2d.  The  two  arte- 
ries of  the  upper  extremi- 
ties, successively  obtain 
the  names  of  subc/acian, 
axillary,     and    brnchial 
arteries,    as    they    pass 
under    the    clavicle,    or 
cross  the  armpit,  or  de- 
scend along  the  arm  to 
the  elbow,   where   they 
divide  into  two  branches, 
called    the    radial    and 
v/nar,  or  cubital  arteries  : 

Explanation  of  Fig.  7. — The  aorta  and  branches  which  arise  from  it  to 
«cnvey  the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,— a,  the  aorta. — c,  arch  of  the 
aorta, — ac,  carotid  arteries, — at,  temporal  arteries, — «r,  sc,  subclavian  ar- 
tery,— r/.i,  axillary  artery, — br,  brachial  artery, — ra,  radial  artery, — cu, 
cubital  or  ulnar  artery, — i,i,  intercostal  arteries, — cte,  coeliac  artery, — re, 
renal  arteries, — me,  and  mei,  superior  and  inferior  mesenteric  arteries, — 17, 
iliac  arteries,—/,  femoral  arteries, — t,  tibial  artery, — p,  the  peroneal  artery. 

25.  Describe  the  course  of  the  aorta? 

SJ6.  What  is  the  course  and  distribution  of  the  carotid  arteries? 

27.  What  arteries  supply  the  upper  extremities? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


28.  3rd.  The  intercostal  arteries  are  several  in   number,  and 
run  between  the  ribs  on  each  f  ide  of  the  body; 

29.  4th.  The  ccelinv  artery,  which  is  distributed  to  the  stomach, 
the  liver,  and  the  spleen  ; 

30.  5th.  The  mesenteric  arteries,  which  ramify  upon  the  intestines; 

31.  6th.  The  renal  arteries  which  penetrate  into  the  kidneys  ; 

32.  And  7th.  The  iliac  arteries,  which  in  a  manner  terminate 
the  aorta,  and  which  convey  blood  to  the  lower  extremities, 
descend  along  the  thighs  and  are  there  called  femoral  arteries  ; 
then   they  divide  into  many  branches  which  terminate  in  the 
feet. 

33.  The  reins,  which  receive  the  blood  thus  transmitted  to  all 
parts  of  the  body,  follow  very  nearly  the  same  course  as   the 
arteries;  but  they  are  larger,  more  numerous  and  generally  situ- 
ated more  superficially.     A  great  number  of  these    vessels  pass 
beneath  the  skin,  others  accompany  the  arteries,  and,  at  last,  they 
all  unite  to  form  two  great  trunks  which  empty  into   the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart,  and  which  have  received  the  names  of  vena 
cava  superior  and  on,  a  cava  infer  im  .  (page  37.  fig.  6.) 

34.  The  veins  which  come  from  the  intestines  present  an  im- 
portant peculiarity.    After  uniting  in  a  large  trunk,  they  penetrate 
the  liver,  and  there  ramify  like  the  arteries  ;  there  they  again  unite 
into  a  trunk  and  terminate  in  the  inferior  vena  cava  close  to  the 
heart.    This  arrangement  of  the  vessels  is  called  thesysiem  of  the 
Venn  port  a 

35.  The  venous  blood,  poured  by  the  vcnce  cavce  into  the  right 
auricle  of  the   heart,  descends  from   it  into  the  ventricle  of  the 
same  side. 

36.  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  gives  rise  to  a  large  artery, 
called  the  fmiutonart/  aricry,  which  next  receives  this  same  blood,, 
and  carries  it  into  the  lungs,  (page  37.  Jig.  6.) 

28.  What  arteries  run  between  the  ribs  ? 

2').  What  is  the  distribution  of  the  Cceliac  artery  ? 

30.  What  arteries  ramify  upon  the  intestines? 

31.  What  is  the  distribution  of  the  renal  arteries? 

31  What  arteries  are  di  tributed  to  the  lower  extremities  ? 

33.  What  i*  the  general  course   of  the  veins?     In   what   respect  do  the 
veins  differ  from  the  arteries  generally  ?  Where  do  the  gre,.t  venous  trunks 
empty  ;   What  are  they  called  ? 

34.  What  is  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  veins  coming  from    the  in- 
testines ?  What  is  it  called  > 

35.  What  becomes  of  the  venous  blood  after  entering  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart  ? 

3f>.  What  artery  arises  from  the  right  ventricle?  Into  what  part  does  the 
pulmonary  artery  carry  the  blood  '/ 

E2 


40  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


37.  This  vessel  divides  into  two  branches,  one  going  to  the 
right  and  the  other  to  the  left,  to  enter  the  two  corresponding  lungs, 
and  are  divided  into  almost   an  infinity  of  branches,  which  are 
spread   over  the  surface  of  the  little  membranous  cells  of  these 
organs. 

38.  The  capillary  vessels  by  which  the  pulmonary  arteries  ter- 
minate, give  rise  to  veins,  which   unite  together  and  finally  form 
two  large  vessels,  called  pulmonary  veins,  which  empty  into  the 
Jefr.  auricle  of  the  heart.  ( page  36,  fiy.  5.) 

39.  Consequently,  the   pulmonary  veins  receive  the  venous 
blood,  which  was  brought  to  the  lungs  by  the  pulmonary  artery, 
and  which  has  now  become  arterial,  by  the  effect  produced  on  it, 
by  contact  with  the  air  in  the  interior  of  these  organs  ;  they  carry 
it  back  again  to  the  heart  and  pour  it  into  the  left  auricle. 

40.  Finally,  from  the  left  auricle  this  fluid  descends  into  the  left 
ventricle,  whence  we  have  already  seen  it  issue  to  be  distributed 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  through  the  medium  of  the  aorta 
and  its  branches. 

To  recapitulate  what  has  just  been  said,  on  the  route  pursued  by 
the  blood,  in  the  apparatus  .of  the  circulation  in  mammiferous 
animals  and  birds,  we  see : 

41.  1st.  That  the  venous  blood  arrives  from  all  parts  of  the 
body  by  the  general  system  of  veins ; 

2d.  That  from  these  veins  it  enters  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart ; 

3rd.  That  from  the  right  auricle  it  passes  into  the  right 
ventricle ; 

4th.  That  from  the  right  ventricle  the  venous  blood  passes 
through  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lungs; 

5th  That  in  the  capillary  vessels,  which  form  the  termina- 
tion of  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  commencement  of  the  -pul- 
monary veins,  this  liquid  is  changed  into  arterial  blood  ; 

6th.  That  this  arterial  blood  returns  from  the  lungs,  through 
the  pulmonary  veins,  and  enters  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart ; 

7th.  That  from  the  left  auricle  it  descends  into  the  ventricle 
of  the  same  side ; 

8th.  That  from  the  left  ventricle  it  is  forced  into  the  aorta, 
by  which  it  is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

37.  What  is  the  distribution  of  the  pulmonary  artery  ? 

38.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  pulmonary  veins7  Where  do  they  empty  ? 

39.  What  kind  of  blood  do  the  pulmonary  veins  convey  to  the  heart? 
How  is  the  venous,  changed  into  arterial  blood  7 

40.  What  becomes  of  the  blood  after  it  enters  the  left  auricle  ? 

41  *  Whut  is  the  route  pursued  by  th«  Hood  in  the  apparatus  of  the  circu- 
lation ? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.— THE  PULSE.       _  _4i 

42. .  And  9th. — and  finally,  that  in  the  capillary  terminations  of 
the  system  of  canals  formed  by  the  aorta,  the  arterial  blood  acts 
upon  the  organs,  is  changed  there  into  venous  blood,  and  enters 
the  veins  to  be  carried  again  to  the  heart. 

13.  In  accomplishing  the  circulatory  circle,  the  blood  then 
passes  twice  through  the  heart,  in  the  state  of  venous  blood  on 
the  right  side,  and  in  the  state  of  arterial  blood  in  the  left  side 
of  this  organ  ;  (page  36.  Jig.  5.  fy  page  42.  jig.  8.)  yet,  the  cir- 
culation is  complete,  because  the  pulmonary  and  aortic  cavities 
of  the  heart  do  not  open  one  into  the  other,  and  the  venous 
blood  passes  through  the  entire  respiratory  apparatus  to  be 
transmuted  into  arterial  blood. 

44  The  mechanism  by  which  the  blood  moves  through  these 
vessels  is  easily  understood.  The  cavities  of  the  heart  contract 
and  enlarge  alternately,  and  by  contracting  they  force  the  blood 
into  the  canals  with  which  they  (the  cavities)  are  in  communica- 
tion. 

45.  The  two  ventricles  contract  at   the  same  time,  and  while 
their  sides  or  parietes  relax,  the  auricles  in  their  turn  contract. 

46.  The  movement  of  contraction   bears  the  name  of  systo/e, 
and  the  term  diaatufa  is  applied  to  the  opposite  movement,  or 
dilatation. 

47.  The  beating  or  pulsation  of  the  heart  is  very  frequent ;  in 
man  of  adult  age  it  takes  place  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  times 
in  a  minute  ;  in  old  men  the  number  of  beats  is  a  little  increased, 
and  in  very  young  infants  it  is  generally  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty.     But  a  variety  of  circumstances  may  influence  both  the 
frequency  and  force  of  the  beats  of  the  heart;  they  are  accelerated 
by  exercise,  by  moral  emotions,  and  by  a  great  number  of  dis- 
eases; in  swooning  or  syncope,  they  are  considerably  diminished, 
or  even  completely  interrupted. 

48.  The  left  ventricle  in  dilating  fills  with  blood,  and  in  con- 
tracting afterwards,  forces  out  the  liquid  which  it  contains. 

49.  This  ventricle  communicates  only  with  the  left  auricle  by 
an  opening  called  the  aitricnlo-crtitricnlar  opening,  and  with  the 

42.  Where  is  the  arterial  changed  into  venous  blood  ? 

43.  In  accomplishing  its  entire  circle,  how  many  times  does  the  blood 
pass  through  the  heart? 

44    What  cause*  the  blood  to  move  in  the  blood  vessels  ? 

45.  Do  the  auricles  and  ventricles  «>f  the  heart  contract  at  the  same  time? 

46.  What  is  the  contraction  of  the  heart  called  ?  What  is  its  dilation  called  ? 

47.  What  is  the  frequency  of  the  heart's  pulsation?  Is  it  most  frequent 
in  infants  or  in  old  men?  What  circumstances  influence  the  frequency  o. 
the  heart's  pulsation  ? 

4rf.  When  the  left  ventricle  dilates,  what  happens  ? 
49.   With  what  does  the  left  ventricle  communicate? 
4 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


Fig.  8. 


np  % 


aorta,  (  Fig.8,aa.*)  ;  the  blood,  at  the 
moment  of  its  contraction,  must 
then  either  flow  back  into  the  auricle, 
ap  (o(/.)  or  enter  the  aorta. 

50.  Now,  around  the  edges  of  this 
auricvh-  ventricular  opening,  (  Fiy. 

va.)  there  is  a  sort  of  valve,  called 
the  mitral  valve,  which  is  so  arranged 
as  to  rise  up,  and  close  this  opening, 
when  it  is  pushed  from  below  upwards. 
From  this  construction,  it  happens, 
that  when  the  blood  tends  towards 
fig.  9. 


entering  into  the  auricle  Co,)  the  mttral  valce  is 
pushed  up,  and  interrupts  the  communication 
between  the  auricle  and  ventricle. 

51.  Therefore,  when  the  left  ventricle  con- 
tracts, the  blood  finds  no  other  outlet  than  the   o 
aorta,  and  enters  this  vessel  which  it  distends  ra 
with  more  or  less  force,  for  its  parietes,  as  well 
as  those  of  all  the  arteries,  are  very  elastic. 

52.  Other  valves  situate  at  the  entrance  of 
the  aorta,  prevent  the  blood  from  returning  into 


vc 


Explanation  of  Fig.  8.  —  The  heart  opened  to  s'^ow  the  cavities  in  the  in- 
terior of  this  organ.—  o</,  right  auricle  of  the  heart,  —  «</,  right  venlricle  of 
the  heart,  --o#,  left  auricle  of  the  heart,—  »^,  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  — 
vcs,  and  vci,  superior  and  inferior  venae  cavae,  emptying'  into  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart,  —  ap,  pulmonary  artery  going  from  the  right  ventricle  to 
the  lungs,  —  vp,  pulmonary  veins  passing  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle 
of  the  heart,—  aa,  the  aorta,  —  o,  l<;ft  auriculo-ven'.riculur  opening,  —  o', 
right  auriculo-ventncular  opening.  The  arrows  point  out  the  direction  of 
the  flow  of  the  blood  in  the  different  ve>sels. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  9.  —  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart  opened  to  show 
the  position  of  the  valve,  »«,  in  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening,  which, 
during  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle,  (ww,)  prevents  the  blood  from  enter- 
ing the  auricle,  (o,)  ;  we  observe  small  cords  passing  from  the  edge  of  this 
valve  and  attaching  themselves  by  their  inferior  extremities  to  the  parietes  of 
the  ventricle,  (c.)  Like  the  rest  of  the  heart,  they  are  fleshy,  and  prevent 
the  valve  from  turning  entirely  over  into  the  auricle,  when  the  blood,  pressed 
by  the  ventricle,  elevates  it.  The  aorta  is  al*o  open  to  show  the  valves,  (a') 
which  surround  its  entrance,  and  which  are  differently  arranged  from  those 
of  the  ventricle. 

50.  Where  is  the  mitral  valve  placed  'I     What  is  the  use  of  the  mitral 
valve  ? 

51.  Into  what  part  is  the  blood  forced  by  the  contraction  of  the  left  ven- 
tricle  ?     Why  does  it  not  go  back  into  the  auricle  ? 

52.  What  prevents  the  blood  from  returning  into  the  left   ventricle   from 
the  aorta  ?     Are  the  arteries  elastic  or  not  ? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


43 


the  left  ventricle,  so  that,  pressed  by  the  elastic  force  of  the 
arterial  parietes,  it  is  continually  pushed  forward,  from  the  heart 
towards  the  extremities  of  the  arteries. 

53.  The  phenomenon  known  under  the  name  of  the  pulse,  is 
nothing  else  than  the  motion  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  blood 
against  the  parietes  of  the  arteries,  every  time  that  the  heart  con- 
tracts     According  to  the  frequency  and  force  of  these  motions, 
we  may  judge  of  the  manner  in  which  the  organ  beats,  and  draw 
therefrom,  deductions  useful  in  medicine.     But  the  pulse  is  not 
frit  in  all  parts;  to  perceive  it,  we 

must  slightly  compress  an  artery 
of  a  certain  volume  between  the 
finger  and  a  resisting  sut  face,  of 
a  bone,  for  example,  and  select  a 
vessel  situated  near  the  skin,  as 
tl  e  radial  artery  at  the  wrist. 

54.  The  impulsion  received  by 
the  blood  at  its  exit  from  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  is  commu- 
nicated   to  the  capillary   vessels 
and  to  the  veins,  and  determines 
the  progression  of  the  blood    in 
them.     But    the    return    of   the 
vrnous  blood   towards  the  right 
ventricle,   is  favoured    by    some 
other  circumstances.  In  the  veins 
ol  the  extremities,  the  membrane 
which  lines  these  vessels,  forms  a 

pi  eat  many  folds  or  vuhw,  (  Fig.  10,  «.)  which  open  when  the  blood 
pushes  them  from  the  extremities  towards  the  heart,  and  shut  so 
as  to  close  the  passage,  when  this  liquid  flows  in  a  contrary  direc- 
ti  >n.  Now,  this  arragement  prevents  the  blood  from  flowing  back 
t( -wards  the  capillaries,  and  thus  facilitates  its  passage  towards 
the  heart;  for,  every  time  a  vein  is  pressed  by  the  movements  of 
11  ie  parts  in  its  vicinity,  the  blood  is  pushed  forward. 

Explanation  oj  Fig.  10. — A  large  vein  opened  to  show   the  valves,  (e,) 

which  are  found  in  these  vessels, — 0,0,  openings  of  two  of  its  branches, an, 

anastomosis  of  two  veins, — c,  capillary  roots  of  the  vein. 

53.  What  is  the  pulse  ?  Is  the  pulse  ftlt  in  all  parts  ?  What  does  the  pulse 
indicate  ?   What  oiicumstanccs  are  to  be  observed  in  order  to  feel  the  pulse  ? 

54.  Whftl  causes  the  blood  to  circulate  in   the  capillary    vessels?     What 
other  circumstance,  besides  the  impulsion  received  from   the  heart,   favour* 
Hie  return  of  the  blood  towards  the  right  ventricle  ? 


44  ABSORPTION. 


55.  The  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  right  cavities  of  the 
heart,  is  effected  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  left  cavities.      Be- 
tween the  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle  there  also  exists  a  valve, 
called  the  tncuxnt'd  valve,  which  prevents  the  blood  from  return- 
ing from  the  ventricle  into  the  auricle,  (p.  42.Jig.8.  $•  p.4&.JigAQ.) 
and  by  the  contractions  of  this  ventricle  the  blood  is  forced  to 
circulate   in  the  vessels  of  the  lungs  and  to  arrive  at  the  left 
auricle. 

56.  It  is  the  ventricles,  as  we  have  seen,  which  force  the  blood 
into  the  arteries  and  cause  it  to  circulate. 

57.  The  auricles  are  a  sort  of  reservoirs,  designed  to  contain 
the  blood  arriving  by  the  veins,  and  to  pour  it  into  the  correspon- 
ding ventricles. 

58.  Such  is  the  march  of  the  blood,  not  only  in  man  and  all 
the  mammalia,  but  also  in  birds ;  in  the  sequel  we  shall  see  that 
in  reptiles  and  fishes,  the  structure  of  the  heart  is  less  complicated, 
and  that  the  blood  follows  a  somewhat  different  direction. 

OF  ABSORPTION. 

59.  The  blood,  in  passing  through  the  veins  from  their  capil- 
lary origin  in  the  substance  of  the  organs  to  their  termination  in 
the  right  auricle  of  the  heart,  carries  with  it  all  the  fluids  which  in 
some  way  filter  through  the  parietes  of  these  vessels.     Fluid  sub- 
stances which  may  be  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  body  and 
of  the  great  hollow  cavities  in  its  interior,  or  which  are  deposited 
in  the  depth  of  the  organs,  are,  as  it  were,  pumped  up,  more  or 
less  rapidly,  and  carried  into  the  torrent  of  the  circulation. 

60.  To  the  passage  of  substances,  of  whatever  kind-,  from  the  ex- 
terior,  into  t lie  interior  of  t/ie  b!ood  ves*e Is  through  their  parietes, 
or  particular  canals,  and  their  mixture  with  the  blood,  is  given  the 
name  of  ABSORPTION. 

61.  Substances  thus  absorbed,  generally,  penetrate  directly  in- 
to the  veins ;  but  under  some  circumstances  they  are  carried 
thither   by  particular  canals,  called   lymphatic  vessels.     In  des- 
cribing the  act  of  digestion,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  again 
to  these  vessels. 

55.  Ho\v  is  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
effected  ?  What  valve  exists  between  the  right  auricle,  and  right  ventricle? 
How  ijj  thp  blood  forred  to  circulate  through  the  lungs  ? 

56.  What  forces  the  blood  into  the  arteries  ? 

57.  What  are  the  auricles  ? 

58.  Is  the  structure  of  the  heart,  and  the  circulation  the  same  in  all 
animals  ? 

59.  Do  substances  different  from  the  blood  enter  into  the  circulation  ? 

60.  What  is  absorption  ? 

61.  Is  absorption  effected  by  the  veins  only  ? 


OF  EXHALATION.  45 


62.  All  parts  of  the  body  may  be  the  seat  of  -a  more  or  less 
rapil  absorption ;   it  is  by  this  phenomenon  that  liquids,  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach  are  found,  a  very  short  time  afterwards, 
mingled  with  the  venous  blood,  and  that  certain  vapors,  mixed 
with  the  air  drawn  into  the  lungs,  sometimes  act  upon  remote 
parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  brain,  as  happens  when  we  breathe 
alcoholic  vapors.     It  is  also  by  absortion  alone,  that  we  can  ex- 
plain how  poisons  applied  to  the  lips,  the  eye,  or  to  a  slight  erosion 
of  the  skin,  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the  body,  and   cause 
death,  often  with  as  much  rapidity  as  if  they  had  been  conveyed 
directly  into  the  stomach. 

63.  it  is  by  the  absorption,  which  takes  place  in  the  substance 
of  all  the  organs,  that  the  old  materials  no  longer  of  use  and 
separated  from  the  living  tissues  by  the  nutritive  act,  are  poured 
into  the  circulating  torrent  to  be  carried  out  of  the  body. 

OF  EXHALATION  AND  OF  SECRETION. 

64.  The  blood,  in  circulating  through  the  body,  is  not  limited 
tt»  the  nutrition   of  the   organs  through  which  it  passes,  and  to 
mingling  with  it  absorbed  matters ;  on  passing  into  certain  parts 
of  the  body,  it  abandons  a  portion  of  the  matters  which  it  contains, 
and  in  this  way  gives  birth  to  peculiar  liquids  called  humors. 

65.  This  separation  of  the  contained  matters  from  the  blood 
may  take  place  in  two  ways  :  by  exhalation  and  by  secretion. 

66.  EXHALATION   is  tin;  separation   of  a  portion  of  the  most 
aqueous  part  oi  the  blond,  which  iu  some  manner,  filters  through 
the  pa'ictes  of  the  resseh. 

67.  The  exhaled  liquids  do  not  differ  much  from  serum,  ex- 
cept that  they  contain  more  water.     Sometimes  they  accumulate 
in  the  internal  cavities  of  the  body ,  at  others  they  are  diffused 
over  the  surface  and  are  evaporated  into  the  air.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  a  considerable  quantity  of  vapor  escapes  from  the  lungs,  and 
a  very  active  evaporation  takes  place  upon  the  surface  of  the 
skin. 

C2.   Does  absorption  take  place  in  al1  parts  of  the  body  ? 

63.  By  what  process  are  those  materials  which  are  no  longer  of  use,  car- 
ried out  of  the  body  ? 

GJ.  Is  the  office  of  the  blend  limited  to  the  nutrition  of  the  organs  through 
which  it  p  s-es? 

65.  In  how  many  ways  may  matters  contained  in  the  bl.od  be  separated 
from  it  ? 

6(i.  What  is  exhalation? 

67.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  liquid  exhaled?  What  becomes  of  the  ex 
halations  ? 
4* 


46  OF  SECRETION. 


68.  SECRRTION  is  the  production  of  certain  /if/itids  which  resem- 
ble the  scrum  in  nothiity,  and  which  are  alto  formed  at  the  expense 
oj  the  blood. 

69.  Tears,  saliva,  bile,  urine,  &c.,  are  liquids,  secreted  in  this 
way. 

70.  The  phenomenon  of  secretion  always  takes  place  in  parti- 
cular organs.     Sometimes  it  is  seated  in  the  follicles,  and  some- 
times in  the  glands. 

71.  The  fiMulrx  are  very  small  pouches  which  are  strewed 
through  substance  of  the  membranes,  and  which  open  upon  their 
surface,  by  small  pores. 

72.  The  fuilidf*  of  the  skin  secrete  the  sweat ;  those  on  the 
edge  of  the  eye-lids  which  secrete  the  yellow  matter  which  some- 
times accumulates  during  sleep,  are  organs  of  this  kind. 

73.  The  (/lands  are  more  voluminous  organs,  composed  of  small 
granulations  united  in  a  compact  and  distinct  mass.  These  granu- 
lations are  the  seat  of  secretion,  and  they  generally  communicate 
externally,  by  small  tubes  or  conduits,  which,  uniting  together 
like  the  roots  of  a  tree,  finally  form  an  excretory  canal  by  which 
the  secreted  liquid  is  poured  out. 

74.  The  salivary  glands  which  secrete  the  saliva,  the  lachrymal 
glands,  which  secrete  the  tears,  and  the  liver  which  secretes  the 
bile,  are  organs  of  this  class. 

75.  The  act  of  secretion  is  not  designed  simply  to  produce  liquids 
useful  in  the  exercise  of  certain  functions,  such  as  the  saliva  and 
bile ;  but  also  to  free  the  blood  from  the  old  materials,  separated 
from  the  tissue  of  the  organs  by  the  act  of  nutrition,  and  other 
useless  or  injurious  matters,  which  may  become  mixed  with  it  by 
the  effect  of  absorption.     The  secretion  of  urine,   which  takes 
place  in  the  kidneys,  (situated  in  the  abdomen,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  spine)   and    the  expulsion  'of   it  which   follows,    is  the 
principal  means  by  which  this  sort  of  purification  of  the  blood  is 
effected. 


63.  What  is  secretion? 

69.  Give  examples  of  the  secretions  ? 

70.  In  what  part  does  the  secretion  take  place  ? 

71.  What  are  follicles? 

72.  How  is  the  sweat  produced  ? 

73.  What  are  glands  ?  How  do  they  communicate  externally  ? 

74.  Give  examples  of  s  creting  glands  ? 

75.  What  a-e  the  objects  of  secretion?  What  organs  secrete  the  urine  ? 


RESPIRATION. 


LESSON    IV. 

FUNCTIONS  OP  NUTRITION — Respiration — Necessity  of  contact 
with  tin-  ui.r — rfspk$xiti — Composition  of  the  atmosphere — IJriii' 
cipnl  phenomena  of  respiration — the  Luiiys — Mechanism  of  m-- 
piration — Animal  Heat. 

OF   RESPIRATION. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the.  arterial  blood,  by  its  action 
upon  the  living  tissues,  loses  those  qualities  which  make  it  fit  for 
the  support  of  animal  life,  and  after  having  been  in  this  way 
vitiated,  it  regains  its  first  properties  by  contact  with  the  air. 

1.  Tne.  transformation  of  venotts  into  arterial  titooa,  by  I  he 
action  of  the  <viY,  constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  RESPIRATION. 

2.  Respiration,  and  consequently  contact  writh  the  air,  is  in- 
dispensable to  all  living  beings;  plants  as  well  as  animals  feel  the 
want  of  it,  and  when  deprived  of  it,  both  very  soon  perish. 

3  When,  from  any  cause  whatever,  respiration  is  arrested,  all 
the  animal  functions  are  disturbed.  Life  soon  ceases  to  be  mani- 
fest ;  the  animal  falls  into  a  state  of  asphyxia  or  apparent  death, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  life  becomes  entirely  extinct. 

4.  At  first  sight,  we  might  believe  that  animals  which  live  in 
the  depths  of  the  waters,  as  fishes,  are  removed  from  the  influence 
of  the  air,  and  consequently  form  an  exception  to  the  law  of  which 
we  have  spoken;  but  it  is  not  so,  for  the  liquid  in  which  they 
dwell,  absorbs  and  holds  in  solution  a  certain  quantity  of  air 
which  may  be  easily  separated  from  it,  and  which  is  sufficient  for 
the  support  of  life  in  them  ;  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  exist  in 
water  deprived  of  its  air,  and  they  are  seen  to  become  asphyxia- 
ted, and  die,  just  as  the  niamfniferae  and  birds  do,  when  excluded 
from  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air  under  its  ordinary  form. 

5.  In  man  and  in  the  other  mammalia  the  apparatus  of  respira- 
tion consists: 

1  st.  Of  the  lungs,  organs  which  are  the  seat  of  this  function ; 

2nd.  Of  canals,  by  which  the  air  from  without  is  conveyed  in- 
to the  lungs ; 

3rd.  Of  organs  which  effect  the  entrance  of  the  air  into  this 
apparatus,  and  which  afterwards  expel  it,  co  make  room  for  fresh 
supplies  of  this  fluid. 

1.  What  constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  respiration  ? 

2.  Is  contact  wuh  the  air  nece>sary  to  all  living  beings  f 

3.  If  respiration  be  arrested  what  is  the  consequence  ? 

4.  Do  fish  requi  e  contact  with  the  air  ? 

5.  What  parts  compose  the  apparatus  of  respiration  ? 

F 


ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION. 


6.  The  IH.HUS,    (Figure     11.)    are  very  elastic,  spongy  organs, 
contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  formed  by  the  union  of 
a  great  number  of  membranous  vesicles  resembling  little  cells, 
which    generally   communicate   one    with    another.     Into  these 
vesicles  is  introduced  the  external  air:  when  it  penetrates  their 
cavities,  it  distends  them  and  thus  augments  the  entire  volume  of 
the  lung,  which  happens  in  inspiration;  on  the  contrary,    when 
the  lungs  are  emptied  of  the  air  which  distends  them,  their  volume 
diminishes,  as  happens  in  expiration. 

7.  The  lungs  communicate   with  the  external  air  by  a  long 
c^nal  which  is  terminated  by  the  mouth  and  nose. 

8.  The  air  to  reach  these  organs,  passes  through  the  nasal  fossa3, 
or  nostrils,  or  through  the  mouth  into  the  pharynx,  then  enters  into 

the  larynx,  descends  along  the 
trachea,  or  windpipe,  and  is 
distributed  to  the  pulmonary 
cells  by  other  canals  or  tubes, 
called  bronchia3,  (Fig.  11.) 

9.  The  nasal  fossa?,  and  the 
mouth  terminate  internally  in 
the  pharynx,  or  gullet,  so  that 
the  supply  of  air    necessary 

,  <  for  respiration  may  reach  this 
n  cavity  by  either  route. 

10.  At  the   bottom   of  the 


Fig.  11 


...mi 


pharynx,  or  swallow,  we  find 
an  opening  called  the  glottis, 
which  leads  into  the  larynx, 
and  permits  the  air  to  enter 
therein. 

11.  The  larynx  is  a  short 
tube  of  considerable  diameter, 
situated  at  the  superior  and 
anterior  part  of  the  neck,  and  which  contributes  to  the  production 
of  the  voice.^ . 

"^Explanation  of  Fig.  11.— The  lungs  and  trachea  ;  on  the  left  side  of  the  cut, 
the  lung  is  represented  entire  (p,)  and  on  the  right,  are  the  canals  which  convey 
uir  into  the  interior  of  all  the  cells  of  this  organ,— 6,  the  mouth,— mi,  the  lowei 
,aw,— A,the  hyoid  bone,— I, the  larynx,— I,  the  trachea,  or  windpipe,— br.  bron 
chiai,— br\  ramuscles  or  small  branches  of  the  bronchia,— ;),  the  lungs. 

6.  What  are  the  lungs? 

7.  How  do  the  lungs  communicate  with  the  external  air  ? 

8.  Flow  does  the  air  reach  the  lungs  ? 

9.  How  do  the  nostrils  terminate  internally  ? 

10.  To  what  part  does  the  glottis  lead  ? 

11.  What  is  the  larynx? 


ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION. 


4!) 


12.  The  larynx  is  prolonged  inferiorly  into  a  long  tube,  called 
the  irucfu-a  or  wind  pipe,  which  descends  through  the  neck,  and 
enters  into  the  thorax.     This  tube  is  formed  by  a  series  of  cartil- 
aginous rings,  and  is  lined  internally  by  a  thin  membrane,  whicn 
also  lines  the  larynx,  and  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  pharynx. 
The  cartilaginous  rings  of  the  trachea  are  very  elastic,  and  prevent 
this  air  canal  from  being  effaced,    that  is,  from  having  its  sides 
pressed  together,  and  thus  offer  an  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  the  air. 

13.  At  its  lower  extremity,  the  trachea  is  divided  into  two 
branches,  one  going  to  each  of  the  two  lungs;  they   are  called 
bronchia. 

14.  Soon  after  they  enter  the  lungs,  these   bronchi®  are  sub- 
divided, and  ramify  in  an  almost  infinity    of  branches,  so   as  to 
furnish  every   pulmonary  cell  with  a  little  branch,  which  opens 
into  it,  and  conveys  there,  the  air  necessary  to  respiration. 

15.  The    instrument    which 
causes  the  air  to  pass  through 
these   tubes,  and    to   enter   the 
lungs,  or  lo  go  out  from  them  is 
the  thorax,  (Fig.  12.) 

16.  The  mechanism  by  which 
this  phenomenon  is  produced  is 
very  simple,  and  in  almost  every 
respect  resembles  the  play    of  a 
pair  of  bellows,  except  that  the 
air  escapes  by  the  same  passage 
that  it  entered  the  lungs,  which 
is  not  the  case  in  the  bellows. 

17.  The  lungs  are  lodged  in  a 
great  cavity  called  the  chest,  or 
thorax,   the  sides  of  which  are 
moveable,  and  so  arranged,  as  to 


Fig 


mi 


d 


Explanation  of  Fty.  12.— The  thorax.  On  the  right  side  of  the  cut  are  seen 
the  muscles  which  fill  the  spaces  between  the  ribs;  on  the  left  side,  they  have 
been  removed, — e».  the  vertebral  column,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  con- 
cealr-d  by  the  sternum,  (s),— e.c,c.e,  ribs  of  the  right  side, — mi,  intercostal 
muscles, — s,  the  sternum, — d,  the  diaphragm  ;  a  part  of  which  is  seen  below 
thj  thorax,  and  between  the  ribs  on  the  right  side,  but  it  is  concealed  on  the 
left  by  the  ribs  and  intercostal  muscles. 

12.  Wh;it  is  the  trachea  ?     What  is  its  structure  ? 

13.  What  are  the  brorichiae? 

14.  How  do  the  branchiae  terminate? 

15.  What  causes  the  air  to  pass  through  the  lungs? 

16.  To  what  is  this  mechanism  comparable  ? 

17.  Where  are  the  lungs   situated  ?     What    happens    when   tne   ihorax 
dilate»  ?     How  does  the  air  escape  from  the  lungs  ? 


50  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION. 


enlarge  and  diminish  the  size  of  the  cavity  alternately  ;  the  lungs 
follow  these  motions  and  dilate,  and  contract  in  consequence  ; 
now,  in  the  first  case,  (when  the  thorax  dilates,)  the  air,  pressed 
hy  all  the  weight  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  is  forced 
into  the  chest,  through  the  mouth  or  nostrils,  and  trachea,  and 
tills  the  pulmonary  cells,  in  the  same  way  that  water  mounts  in 
the  body  of  a  pump  when  the  piston  is  raised.  In  the  second 
case,  (in  the  act  of  expiration),  the  air  contained  in  the  lungs,  is 
on  the  contrary,  compressed,  and  partially  escapes  by  the  route 
which  served  it  for  entrance. 

,  13.  18.  The  cavity  of  the  thorax,  (Fit/.  13.  T.)  is 

formed  principally  by  the  ribs,  which  are 
attached,  posteriorly,  to  the  spine  or  verte- 
bral column,  and  in  front  to  the  bone  of  the 
sternum;  the  spaces  which  exist  between  the 
\wv*m>i>^i-  r'hs'  are  fi"ed  UP  by  muscles,  and  below, 
this  species  of  chamber  is  separated  from 
the  belly  by  a  fleshy  partition  called  the 


19.  Inspiration,  or  the  enlargement  of  the 
chest,  is  produced  in  two  ways;  1st.  by 
the  elevation  of  the  ribs;  2nd.  by  the  mus- 
/  cular  contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  which, 
in  a  state  of  repose,  rises  into  the  chest  in  the  form  of  an  arch, 
and  which  in  contracting,  is  lowered  down.  Expiration,  or  con- 
traction of  the  chest,  on  the  contrarv,  is  produced  by  the  depres- 
sion of  the  ribs,  and  relaxation  of  the  diaphragm.  We  observe 
many  degrees  in  the  extent  of  these  movements  ;  and  in  ordinary 
respiration,  the  quantity  of  air  received  into,  or  expelled  from  the 
lungs,  does  not  much  exceed  one  seventh  part  of  what  these 
organs  are  capable  of  containing.  The  number  of  respiratory 
movements  varies  in  different  individuals  according  to  the  age  ; 
in  adult  age,  we  count  about  twenty  inspirations  a  minute,  in 
infancy  they  are  much  more  frequent. 

20.  We  have  seen  that  it  is  by  the  nose  or  mouth,  the  pharynx, 
the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  bronchiae,  that  the  air  enters  into 

Explanation  of  Fig-  13. — A  vertical  section  of  tho  trunk,  !o  show  the 
position  of  fie  diaphragm  (<].}  which  separates  the  ahdo  tien  (A.)  from  ihe 
tiiorax  (r.)  into  which  ii  ri^es  up  like  an  arch, — CD,  vertebral  column, — c,  ribs 


18.  [!<>w  is  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  formed?     What   separates    it  from 
'.he  belly  ? 

19.  How  is  inspiration  produced  ?     How  is  inspiration    effected?     How 
many  inspirations  does  an  adult  take  in  a  minute  ? 

20    Ho  A  does  the  air  act  upon  the  blood  ? 


COMPOSITION  OF  ATMOSPHERIC  AIR. 


the  lungs  The  venous  blood,  which  is  to  be  subjected  to  the, 
salutary  influence  of  this  air,  arrives,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  lit- 
tle vessels,  which  ramify  in  every  direction  over  the  sides  of  the 
cells;  consequently,  it  is  through  the  very  sides  of  these  capil- 
lary vessels  that  the  air  acts  upon  this  fluid. 

21.  The  blood  coming  to  the  lungs  is  of  a  blackish  red  color, 
and  is  not  fit  to  support  life  in  the  organs ;  but  so  soon  as  it  comes 
in  contact  with  the  air  it  changes  its  nature  ;  its  color  becomes  o. 
a  bright  red,  regains  its  vivifying  properties  and  acqufres  all  the 
characteristics  of  arterial  blood 

22.  The  atmospheric  air  which  thus  enters  into  the  lungs,  and 
there  produces  so  remarkable  a  phenomenon,  is  chiefly  composed 
of  two  substances   which  differ  very  much    from   each    other ; 
namely  oxt/ye  ,  and  azote  or  nitrcyfu. 

23.  Though  the  oxygen  which  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  air  forms  but  about  one  fifth  (21  parts  in  the  100,)  it  is   its 
most  important  part,     ft  is  to  the  oxygen   that  the  air  owes  its 
property  of  supporting  life,  and  of  sustaining  the  burning  of  com- 
bustible bodies  when  inflamed. 

24.  Azote,  or  Mtroyen,  which  enters  into  the  composition  ol 
the  air  in  the  proportion  of  79  parts  in  a  100,  is  unfit  for  respira- 
tion, and  incapable  of  supporting  combustion.     It  seems  to  serv  * 
only  to  dilute  the  oxygen,  and  thus  mitigate  the  otherwise  too 
irritating  action  of  this  gas 

25.  By  being  breathed  the  air  changes  its  nature;  its  oxygen 
disappears  little  by  little,  and  is  replaced  by  another  fluid  called 
cuibottic  ctcid  q(is. 

26.  This  ctirlmnw  acid  r/cw  is  composed  of  oxygen  combined 
with  v.arln)nt  derived  from  the  blood  ;  instead  of  being  fit  to  sup- 
port life,  it  acts  as  a  poison  on  animals  that  breathe  it  for  a  short 
time,  and  causes  death. 

27.  On  this  account,  by  the  respiration  of  animals,  the  air  is 
gradually  vitiated,  and,  if  it  were  not  renewed,  would  soon  occa- 
sion asphyxia. 

21.  What  is  th<-  color  of  the  bl  oH    when    it  enters  the  lungs?  What 
change  does  contact  with  the  air  produce  upon  it? 
2'2.  Of  what  is  atmospheric  air  composed  ? 

23.  V\  hat  is  the  p  oportion  of  oxygen  in  the  air  ?  What  is  the  great  use 
of  the  oxygen  ? 

24.  \\  hut  is  the  pro- ortion  of  nitrogen  in  the  air?  Is  it  capable  of  jap. 
porting  animal  life  ?  What  seems  to  be  its  use  ? 

2-").  What  effect  is  produced  upon  the  air  by  breathing  it7 
26.  Of  what  is  carbonic  acid   gas    composed?    Whence  is  the  carbon 
derived?  How  does  it  act  on  those  animals  that  breathe  it? 

27    What  would  happen  if  the  air  breathed  by  animals  were  not  renewed. 


52  RESPIRATION. 


28.  [Carbonic  acid  gas,  which  extinguishes  bodies  in  combus- 
tion in  the  same  way  as  azote,  is  formed  by  the  combustion 
oi'  charcoal ;  also,  during  the  fermentation  of  wine,  and  of  beer, 
which  makes  it  sparkling  and  frothy. 

-.  "29.  It  is  upon  the  action  of  this  gas  on  the  animal  economy  that 
the  asphyxia,  produced  by  the  vapor  of  charcoal,  depends,  as  well 
as  the  greater  number  of  accidents  of  the  same  sort  which  occur 
in  mines,  caves,  wells,  and  vats  wherein  wine  or  beer  is  fer- 
menting. -In  a  grotto  near  INaples,  this  gas  is  continuously  disen- 
gaged from  the  earth,  and  gives  rise  to  phenomena,  which,  at  first 
sight,  appear  very  singular,  and  excite  the  admiration  of  the 
traveller ;  when  a  man  enters  this  cavern  he  experiences  no  in- 
convenience in  his  respiration  ;  but  a  dog  following  him  very  soon 
falls  down  in  a  state  of  asphyxia  at  his  feet,  and  would  soon  ex- 
pire, were  he  not  speedily  removed  to  the  pure  air.  This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  being  much  heavier  than 
the  air,  sinks  down  and  forms  upon  the  bottom  of  the  cave  a  bed 
or  stratum  of  about  two  feet  thick.  Now,  a  dog  that  enters  the 
grotto  is  necessarily  plunged  over  his  head  into  this  mephitic 
gas,  and  must  necessarily  become  asphyxiate,  while  a  man  who  is 
very  much  taller,  only  has  the  lower  part  of  his  body  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid,  and  breathes  freely  the  air  which 
floats  above.  This  remarable  place  is  known  under  the  name  of 
the  Grnttn  del  Cunn,  ttr  dot/'s  groftft.'] 

30.  The  air  which  escapes  from  the  lungs  is  composed  of  the 
nitrogen  inspired,  of  a  portion  of  oxygen  not  employed,  and  of 
carbonic  acid  furnished  by  the  act  of  respiration. 

31.  The  expired  air  is  also  loaded  with  vapor  of  water  exhaled 
from  the  blood  during  its  passage  through  the  capillary  vessels  of 
the  lungs.     This  vapor  becomes  very  perceptible,  when  the  cold 
condenses  it,  at  the  moment  of  its  issue  from  the  body,  and  con 
stitutes  what  physiologists  call  pulmonary  trnuspiration. 

32.  Since  the  air  is  quickly  vitiated  by  respiration,  and  its  oxy 
gen  disappears  to  be  replaced  by  the  carbonic  acid,  we  readily 
infer,  that  this  fluid  must  be  constantly  renewed  in  the  lungs,  and 
in  fact  that    this  takes    place  in    consequence  of  the   alternate 
movements  of  inspiration  and  expiration. 

1 __ 

28.  How  is  carbonic  acid  gas  formed  ?        •« 

29.  Upon  what  do  certain  accidents  in  mine*,  caves,  wells,  &c.  depend  ? 
What  is  the  Grotto  del  Ctinn  near  Naples  remarkable  for? 

30    Of  wh'.t  is  the  air  which  escapes  from  the  lungs  composed? 

31.  What  is  pulmonary  transpiration? 

32.  Why  is  it  necessary  te  renew  the  air  in  the  lungs  ? 


AMMAL  HEAT. 


33.  We  are  informed  of  the  degree  of  alteration  which  the  air 
has  undergone  in  our  lungs,  by  the  sensation  which  induces  us  to 
renew  it.     This  sensation,  scarcely  appreciable  in  ordinary  respi- 
ration, because  we  hasten  to  comply  with  the  necessity  of  frequent- 
ly renewing  the  air,  becomes  painful  if  not  promptly  satisfied  ;  and 
is  sometimes  accompanied  by  anxiety,  and  even  agony  ;  an  in- 
structive warning  of  the  imperious  necessity  of  respiration. 

34.  In  man  there  is  commonly  twenty  inspirations  per  minute. 

35.  In  all  the  mammalia,  in  birds,  and  in  reptiles,  respiration 
takes  place  in  lungs,  and  very  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
man. 

36.  In  the  greater  number  of  aquatic  animals,  such  as  fishes, 
lobsters,  oysters,  &c.,  it  is  altogether  different,  and  respiration 
takes  place  through  the  medium  of  a  sort  of  membraneous  frin- 
ges called  branch  HE;  we  shall  recur  to  this  in  the  sequel. 

37.  The  air  necessary  to  the  support  of  life  in  insects,  pene- 
trates into  all  parts  of  their  bodies  through  particular  canals  called 


38.  Finally;  there  are  some  animals  which  have  neither  lungs 
nor  braiicliia-j  nor  truck  a,  in  which  respiration  is  accomplished 
by  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  earth-worm  is  an  example  of  this 
kind. 

OF  ANIMAL  HF.AT. 

39.  The  greater  number  of   animals   appear  cold   when  we 
touch  them,  and  indeed,  the  temperature  of  their  bodies  is  not 
much  above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  changes  with  it.     In 
man,  and  other  animals  that  approach  him  in  their  organization, 
it  is  otherwise  ;  they  have  the  faculty  of  producing  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  caloric  to  maintain  their  temperatures,  nearly  always 
at  the  same  degree,  under  all  atmospheric  changes,  and  keep  them- 
selves warm. 

40.  We  designate  under  the  name  of  cold  blooded  animah,  all 
those  whose  proper  heat  is  not  very  perceivable,  and  call  those 
Wfinn  l)lo(Hlt>tt  uiiimuis  which  produce  sufficient  heat  independently 
of  the  atmosphere  surrounding  them. 

33    How  are  we  made  acquainted  with  the  alteration  the  air  has  under- 
gone in  the  lungs  ? 

34.  How  many  times  does  a  man  respire  in  a  minute  ? 

35.  Does  respiration  take  place  in  lungs  in  all  animals  ? 

36.  In  what  organs  docs  respiration  take  place  in  aquatic  animals? 

37.  How  does  air  enter  the  bodies  of  insects? 

38.  How  does  respiration  take  place  in  those  animals  which  have  neither 
lungs,  nor  branchiae,  nor  tracheae  ? 

39.  Are  all  animals  of  the  same  temperature? 

40.  What  is  meant  by  cold  blooded  animals?    What  is  meant  bv   warm 
yl.oodeu  animals? 

5 


ANIMAL  HEAT.—  DIG  FSTION. 


41.  The  production  of  this  heat,  which  is  called  animal  heat, 
seems  to  depend  upon  the  act  of  respiration. 

42.  The  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  venous 
blood,  in  the  interior  of  the  lungs,  as  we  have  already  seen,  causes 
the  formation  of  a  certain  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  case  where  oxygen  combines  with  carbon, 
in  producing  the  phenomenon  of  combustion,  and,  in  both  in- 
stances, must  extricate  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  heat. 

43.  The  faculty  of  thus  producing  heat,  is  common  to  all  ani- 
mals ;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  develope  it  in  so  small  a  degree 
that  it  is  not  appreciable  by  our  ordinary  thermometers,  while  in 
others,  it  is  so  great  that  we  do  not  require  physical  instruments 
to  ascertain  its  existence. 

44.  The  only  warm  blooded  animals  are  the  mammalia  and 
birds  ;  all  the  rest  are  cold  blooded. 

45.  The  temperature  of  the  body  of  man,  is  about  101  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit.     It  is  about  the  same  in  the  other  mammalia,   but 
birds  produce  more  heat,  their  temperature  rising  to  about  108° 
Fahrenheit. 


LESSON    V. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION — Digestion  —  Month —  7  he  prehension 
of  aliment* — Mastication — Teeth — Their  structure — The  man- 
ner of  their  formation — Their  form  and  use — Saliva — Salivary 
glands— Deglutition  —  I'harynr — Oesophagus. 

1.  The  blood,  as  we  have  seen,  in  nourishing  all  the  organs,  it 
maybe  said,  loses  some  what  of  its  properties,and  requires  to  retrieve 
the  losses  which  it  thus  undergoes ;  now,  it  is  renewed  by  receiv- 
ing new  materials  from  the  productions  of  the  earth. 

2.  These  materials,  destined  to  the  support  of  the  blood,  and 
consequently  to  the  support  of  the  whole  body,  are  furnished  by 
the  various  aliments  or  food. 

„     41.  Upon  what  does  the  production  of  animal  heat  depend? 
42.  How  is  animal  heat  produced  '( 
4-'i    Is  the  faculty  of  producing  heat  common  to  all  animals  ? 

44.  What  animals  are  warm  blooded? 

45.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  body  of  man  ?  What  is  the  tempera- 
ture of  birds? 

1    How  does  the  blood  regain  those  properties  which  it  loses  by  nourish* 
.ng  tne  organs  ? 

2.  What  furnishes  the  materials  for  the  support  of  the  blood? 


DIGESTION.  55 


%.  That  they  may  be  nourished,  all  living  beings  require  that 
alimentary  substance  should  be  introduced  into  their  bodies  frorp 
time  to  time. 

4.  Plants  pump  up  by  their  roots  the  aliments  furnished  them  by 
the  earth,  and  these  matters  are  mingled  with  the  nutritious  liquid 
called  &«/;, which  permeates  throughout  their  tissues  without  having 
undergone  any  preparation. 

5.  With  animals  it  is  altogether  different.     The  aliments,  pre- 
viously to  being  absorbed  and  diffused  through  the  different  parts 
of  the  body,  to  afford  nourishment  to  the  organs,  and  to  enter 
into  the  composition  of  their  tissues,  have  to  undergo  a  certain  pro- 
cess of  preparation,  called  din  cut  ion. 

6.  Digestion  has  for  its  object : 

1st  To  separate  from  alimentary  substances  the  nutritive  part 
from  that  which  is  not. 

2nd.  To  transform  this  nutritive  part  into  a  peculiar  liquid,  fit 
to  mix  with  the  blood  and  nourish  the  organs,  which  liquid  is  called 
ckt,l<>. 

7.  The  process  of  digestion  always  takes  place  in  a  cavity  situ- 
ated in  the  interior  of  the  body  and  communicating  externally  in 
such  a  way  that  aliments  may  enter  it. 

8.  All  animals  are  provided  with  a  triffestivr  tavity. 

9.  Plants,    on     the    contrary,  having  no  need  to  digest  ali- 
ments, have  no  such  cavity.     [The  alimentary  surface  of  a  plant 
is  the  exterior  of  its  root  spread  out  in  the  earth.] 

1 0.  In  some  animals  the  digestive  cavity  is  simply  a  pouch,  com- 
municating externally  by  a  single  opening,  which  performs  the 
functions  both  of  a  mouth  arid  of  an  anus. 

1 1.  But  with  the  greatest  number  it  is  otherwise.     The  diges- 
tive cavity  has    the  form  of  a  tube,  open  at  its   two  ends  ana 
enlarged  about  the  middle.     This  enlarged  portion  of  the  diges- 
tive tube  is  named  stomach-,  and  serves  to  contain  the  aliments, 
while  the  greatest  part  of  the  process  of  digestion  Is  performed. 

3.  That  living  beings  may  be  nourished,  what  circumstance  is  neces. 
eary  ? 

4.  Do  the  nutritious  fluids,  received  by  p'ants  from  the  earth,  undergo  any 
process  of  preparation  or  digestion  ? 

5.  In  order  to  nourish  animal  organs,  is  it  sufficient  to  introduce   food 
int  i  the  stomach  ? 

6.  What  is  the  object  of  f'igesiion  ?  What  is  chyle? 

7.  Where  does  digestion  take  place  ? 

8.  Have  all  animals  a  digest  ve  cavity  ? 

9.  Why  have  plants  no  digestive  cavity? 

10.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  digestiv  •  ca  ity  in  some  ammais? 

11.  What  is  the  for  n  o'  the  dig  stive  cavity  m  the  g  eatest  number  o* 
animals    ?  What  part  is  called  the-  stomach  ? 


56  DIGFSTTON. 


12.  The  superior   opening   ot  this  tube   is   the   mouth ;  it  is 
through  it  that  ibod  enters  the  digestive  cavity.     The  inferior 
opening,  called  anus,  is  destined  as  an  outlet  to  matters  unfit  for 
nutrition,  which  are  separated  from  the  food  by  digestion. 

13.  In  quadrupeds  and  most  other  animals,  we  distinguish,  in 
this  alimentary  tube,  diverse  portions,  the  uses  of  which  are  diffe 
rent;  they  are: 

1st.  The  mouth. 

2nd.  The  pharynx  or  swallow 

3rd.  The  (Esophagus. 

4th.  The  Stomach. 

5th.  The  Intestine. 

1 4.  Other  organs,  or  instruments,  also  concur  to  effect  the  diges- 
tion of  food,  and  constitute,  with  the  tube  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  the  digestive  apparatus  ;  the  principal  are: 

1st.  The  teeth  destined  to  divide  and  grind  the  food. 

2nd.  Certain  glands,  such  as  the  liver  and  salivary  glands, 
serve  to  form  the  humors,  which  act  upon  the  food  in  order  to 
determine  its  digestion. 

3rd.  Of  particular  vessels  destined  to  pump  into  the  intes- 
tine the  nutritious  juices,  produced  by  digestion,  and  to  mix  them 
with  the  blood. 

In  short  we  might  consider  as  being  in  some  sort  auxiliary  to 
the  digestive  apparatus,  certain  organs  with  which  certain  animals 
seize  their  food  and  introduce  it  into  the  mouth  ;  but  these  instru- 
ments principally  serve  other  purposes  and  do  not  really  belong 
to  the  apparatus  of  digestion. 

15.  The  process  of  digestion  is  very  complicated,  and  is  made 
up  of  several  phenomena  or  distinct  acts,  which  take  place  in 
different  parts  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  and   which  have,  for 
instrument?,  particular  organs. 

16.  These  phenomena  are: 

1st.  The  prehension  of  aliments 

2nd.  Mastication. 

3rd.  Insalivation. 

4th    Deglutition 

5th    Chymiflcation,  or  stomach-digestion. 

6th.  Chylification,  or  intestinal  digestion. 

7th.  Absorption  of  chyle. 

12.  What  are  th    termin itions  qf  the  digestive  tube? 

13.  What  arv  the  different  po  lions  of  the  alimentary  canal  1 

]  I.  What  other  organs  beldng  to  the  digestive  apparatus?  What  is  the 
use  of  t'.e  teeth  1 

!;>.  Is  the  process  of  digestion  confined  to  the  stomach  exclusively  ? 
1 6.  What  are  the  several  acts    r  phenomena  which  constitute   digestion 


DIGESTION.  57 


8th.  The  expulsion  of  the  residue,  left  by  the  aliments  after 
digestion  is  finished. 

We  will  now  study  successively  these  different  phenomena,  and 
the  organs  which  produce  them. 

OF  THE  PREHENSION  OF  ALIMENTS. 

17.  The  first   phenomenon  of  the  process   of  digestion  is  the 
prehension  of  aliments,  that  is,  the  act  of  seizing  them  and  intro- 
ducing them  mto  the  mouth. 

18.  The  n  out h  is  a  cavity  of  an  oval  form,  closed  in  front  by 
the  lips,  on  the  sides  by  the  cheeks  and  jaws,  above  by  the  palate, 
and  below  by  the  tongue;  behind  it  is  continuous  with  the  pharynx 
or  swallow,  but  is  separated  from  it  by  a  kind  of  curtain  called 
the  retain  jmidit — (veil  of  the  palate,)  and  which  may  be  elevated 
or  depressed  so  as  to  close  the  passage  or  leave  it  free. 
(page  OS  fig  21.) 

19.  The  entrance  to  the   mouth  may  be  closed  or  opened  by 
movements  of  the  jaws  and  lips      On  the  prehension  of  aliment, 
the  latter  are  separated  to  permit  the  entrance  of  the  substance, 
and  are  immediately  afterwards  closed  to  prevent  its  escape. 

20.  With  most  animals  the  prehension  of  aliments  is  performed 
by  the  lips  and  jaws  alone;  but  with  some,  other  organs  are  em- 
ployed to  seize  the  substances  and  convey  them  to  the  mouth. 
With  man  and  monkeys,  the  hand  thus  becomes  the  chief  instru- 
ment of  the  prehension  of  aliments;  with  the  elephant  it  is  his 
trunk,  and  with  parrots  the  claw. 

21.  With  most  animals  the  food  remains  for  some  time  in  the 
mouth,  to  be  chewed  and  mixed  with  saliva. 

OF  MASTICATION. 

22.  Liquid  aliments  may  be  immediately  swallowed  ;  but  solid 
food  to  be  swallowed  and  digested  with  facility  should  be  previous- 
ly divided  into  very  small  morsels. 

23  This  division,  called  tttaxticntinu,  is  effected  by  the  aid  of 
the  teeth,  which,  set  in  motion  by  the  jaws,  press  upon  the  food 
und  cut  or  crush  it. 

17.  What  is  the  prehension  of  aliments? 

18.  What  is  the  mouth  ?     What  separates  the  mouth  from  the  pharynx  ? 

19.  Is   the  entrance  of  the  mouth   provided  with   the   means   of  being1 
closed  or  opened  1 

20.  How  is  the  prehension  or  food  effected  1 

21.  Docs  ilu-  food  pass  at  once  from  the  mouth  to  fie  stomach? 

22.  May  all  kinds  of  aliment  he  immediately  swallowed  t 

23.  What  is  mastication  7  How  is  it  effected  ? 

5* 


DIGESTION.— THE  TEETH. 


24.  In  man,  and  those  animals  which,  in  their  organization, 
resemble  us  most,  the  two  jaws  are  situated  one  above  the  other  ; 
the  upper  jaw  is  fixed  immovably  to  the  cranium;  but  the  lower 
jaw  is  only  attached  to  it,  at  its  posterior  part,  and  is  there  held 
on  each  side  by  a  sort  of  hinge  or  joint,  which  permits  it  to  be 
separated  from  and  approached  to  the  upper  jaw.  ;  .  • 

Fig.  14.  25.  The  muscles  which  serve  to  bring 

the  jaws  together,  and  which,  conse- 
quently, act  most  during  mastication, 
are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  head,  in 
front  of  the  ear  (Fig  14.),  and  when  we 
press  the  teeth  together,  we  can  feel  that 
they  contract. 

26.  In  most   mammalia   the  edges  of 
the  ja.ws  are  armed  with  teeth. 

27.  The  teeth    are    small   hodies   of 
great    hardness,    which    resemble    bone 
re/v  much;  they  ai  e  planted  in  holes, 

hollowed  info    the  jaws,  which  holes  are    named  alueuli. 

28.  The  fibrous  pads 
which  cover  the  edge  of 
the  jaws,  and  which  are 
called    (/inns,   serve,    as 
well  as  the  alveoli,  to  fix 
the  teeth  solidly  in  the  po- 
sition which  they  occupy. 

29.  Generally,    each 
tooth  is  divided  into  two 
parts;  one  is  situated  with- 
out, and  called  the  crow*, 

the  other,  buried  in  the  alveolus   (/*'*#. 


15.),  and  terminated  by 


Explanation  of  Pip?.  14. — The  head  seen  in  profile,  to  show  the  parotid 
gland,  (gp.}  and  the  chief  levatur,  or  elevating  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw 
namely,  the  temporal  (rnf.)  ami  maseter  muscles,  (rn,w.) 

Explanation  of  Fig.  15 — Lower  jaw  of  a  man  opened  to  show  the  man- 

ner  in  which  the  roots  of  the  teeih  (r )  penetrate  its  Ruhstance  (</.) — A.   the 

superior  edge  left  en! ire, — t.  incisor  teeth, — c  canine  teeth,— fin.  false  molar 

teeth, — gm.  great  molar  teeth, — ed.  condyle  of  the  jaw  which  enters  into  its 

"ticulation  with  the  rianium. 


24.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  jiws?    Are  hot h  jaws  equally  moveable  ? 
2.).  Where  are  those  muscles  pliced  which  rnovc  the  jaws? 
2(5.  Have  all  animals  got  teeth? 

27.  What  are  the  teeth  ?     What  are  the  alveoli  f 

28.  What  are  the  gums? 

29.  Into  what  parts  Is  a  toolh  divided  ?    What  is  the  neck  of  a  tooth  T 


DIGESTION.— THE  TEETH. 59 

one  or  more  points,  is  called  the  root  of  the  tooth.  Finally,  we 
often  remark  between  the  crown  and  the  root,  a  slight  shrinking, 
called  the  neck  of  the  tooth. 

30.  The  teeth  are  composed  of  an  internal    substance    called 
ivory,  and  a  sort  of  extremely  hard  stony  varnish,  which  covers 
the  surface,  and  is  called  enamel. 

31.  The  crown  of  the  tooth  only  is  covered  with  enamel.  The 
root  has  it  not. 

32.  The  teeth  are  formed  in  the  interior  of         Fig.  16. 
the  jaws,  and  within  little  membranous  pouches 

called  dental  capsules,  which  are  inclosed  with- 
in the  substance  of  the  bone,  and  which  present 
in  their  interior  a  fleshy  bud,  or  granule,  from  c 
the  surface  of  which  exudes  the  stony  mat- 
ter of  which  the  tooth  is  composed,  (fty.  16.) 

33.  This  stony  matter  is  the  ivory ;  it  moulds 
itself  upon  the  bud,  and  takes  its  form  ;  just  in 
proportion  as   new   quantities   of  ivory   are 

deposited  upon  that  already  formed,  the  tooth  enlarges,  as  well  as 
the  species  of  case  which  it  forms  around  the  bud,  which  shrinks 
away  until  finally  the  little  organ,  being  too  much  compressed, 
disappears ;  the  tooth  then  ceases  to  grow. 

34.  In  proportion  as  the  tooth  is  formed,  as  we  have  just  said, 
it  rises  in  the  alveolus,  passes  through  the  gum,  and  shows  itself 
without. 

35.  The  enamel  is  formed  at  the  superior  portion  of  the  dental 
capsule,  and  is  applied  upon  the  tooth  just  to  the  extent  it  traverses 
that  part  of  the  capsule ;  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  root,  which 
lemains  at  the  bottom  of  the  alveolus  is  never  covered  by  it. 

36.  The  teeth  which  are  formed  in  the  earliest  period    of  life, 
are  destined  soon  to  fall,  and  to  give  place  to  other  teeth,  stronger 

Explanation  of  Fig.  16. — One  of  the  dental  capsules  opened  to  show  the 
fleshy  tubercle  or  granule  which  is  in  it, — 6,  the  tubercle  upon  which  the 
tooth  in  a  manner  moulds  itself; — v.  blood  vessels  and  nerves  which  enlei 
into  this  little  secreting  organ, — d.  part  of  a  tooth  which  has  just  begun  to 
form, — c.  capsule. 

30.  What  is  the  composition  of  teeth  ?   What  is  ivory  ?  What  is  enamel  7 

31.  Have  all  parts  of  the  tooth  a  covering  of  enamel  ? 

32.  How  are  the  teeth  formed  ?     What  are  the  dental  capsules?     What 
do  they  contain  ?     What  office  does  this  granule  fulfil? 

33.  How  do  teeth  prow  or  increase  in  size  ?  Do  teeth  always  continue  to 
grow  ?     Does  the  bud  or  granule  always  exist  in  the  tooth  ? 

34.  How  does  the  tooth  rise  in  the  alveolus  ? 

35.  Wrhere  is  the  enamel  formed  ?  How  is  it  applied  to  the  tooth  ?     Why 
IP  there  no  enamel  on  the  roots  of  the  teeth  ? 

36.  Dp  the  teeth  of  infancy  remain  through  life  ? 

G 


60 DIGESTION.— THE  TEETH. 

and  more  solidly  fixed.  The  first  are  called  milk  teeth,  or 
deciduous  het/t,  or  tee; h  of  the  frr&t  dentition;  the  second,  the 
permanfiit  teeth,  or  teeth  of  stc.iud  dentition. 

Fiy.  17.  37.  The  teeth  are  divided  into  three  kinds, 

17-)  namely: 

38.   1st.    The  incisive   or  incisor,   which 
occupy  the  front  of  the  mouth,  and   termi- 
nate in  a  thin  cutting  edge,  have   but  one 
simple  root,  and  are  tit  for  cutting  the  various 
CS   c      c  aliments, 

39.  2nd.  The  canine,  which  are  placed  on  each  side  and  next 
to  the  incisors,  are  in  general,  long  and  pointed;  they  also  have 
only  a  single  root,  but  it  penetrates  deeply  into  the  jaw;  their 
principal  use  is  to  fix  themselves  in  the  flesh,  upon  which  the  ani- 
mal feeds,  and  to  tear  it. 

40.  3d.  The  molar  teeth,  or  grinders,  which  are  next   to  the 
canine,  occupy  the  sides  of  the  mouth  ;  they  are  generally,  pro- 
vided with  several  roots,  and  present  a  large,   unequal   crown, 
appropriate  for  grinding  the  food. 

41.  The  molar  teeth  are  subdivided  into  false  molar,  (dentes 
biscupidati)  and  great  molar  ;  the  first  are  smaller  than  the  second, 
and  are  situated  in  front  of  them;  the  roots  of  the  great  molars 
are  also  more  numerous,  which  gives  them   more  solidity   and 
power 

42.  The  number  of  teeth  varies  in  different  animals.     Man, 
monkeys,  the  dog,  the  cat,  &c.,  have  the  three  sorts  of  teeth,  we 
have  just  described  ;  but  with  the  rabbit,  the  rat,  and    the  other 
gnawers,  (rodentia,)  the  canine  teeth  are  wanting;  and  in  other 
quadrupeds,  such  as  the  sloth,  there  are   no   incisors  ;  finally, 
there  are  also  animals  that  are  entirely  unprovided   with    teeth, 
the  ant-eater,  and  birds,  for  example. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  17. — The  lower  jaw  of  a  very  young  in  flint.,  opened 
to  shuw  the  capsules  ot  the  teeth.  The  milk  teeth  are  here  developed,  and 
there  are  fivo  on  each  side:  namely,  two  incisors,  (t,?,)  one  canine,  (c.)  and 
two  molars,  (mm.) ;  we  see  below  them  the  capsules  of  the  incisor,  canine  and 
false  molar  teeth  of  second  dentition,  (c,c.)  and  further  back,  the  capsules  o* 
the  great  molars,  (eg.) 

37.  How  many  kinds  of  teeth  are  there? 

38.  What  are  the  incisor  teeth  ?     Where  are  they  placed  ?     What  is  their 
peculiar  use  ? 

3D.  Where  are  the  canine  teeth  ?  What  is  their  form  ?  What  is  their  use  ? 
40.  What  is  the  situation  and  form  of  the  molar  teeth  ? 
4J.   How  are  the  molar  teeth  subdivided? 

42.  Are  the  same  varieties  and  number  of  teeth  found  in  all  animals  ' 
What  animals  are  without  teeth '/ 


DIGESTION.— THE  TEHTH. 


61 


Fiy.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


43.  The  torm  of  the  teeth  also  varies  in  different  animals,  and 
we  remark,  that  these  differences  are  in   accordance   with    the 
nature  or  kind  of  aliment  upon  which  these  beings  are  destined 
to  be  nourished. 

44.  Thus,  with  the  dog,  the  cat,  and 
other  carnivorous  animals,  the  molar 
teeth  are  sharp,  and  fitted  to  cut  flesh, 
like  scissors  (Tig.  18.) ;  with  the  mole 
and  hedge-hog,  that  live  upon  pretty 
hard  insects,  these  teeth   are  armed 
with  conical  points,  which  dovetail  or 
fit  reciprocally,  and  enable  these  ani- 
mals to  crush  their  prey  with  facility. 

With  the  frugivorous  animals,  monkeys,  for  example,  the  same 
teeth  are  large,  and  their  crown  is  armed 
with  rounded  elevations,  suitable  for  crush- 
ing fruits;  and  with  the  ox  and  horse,  which 
browse  or  crop  the  grass,  the  crown  of  these 
teeth  is  still  larger,  and  its  surface  is  flat  and 
striated  like  a  mill  stone.  (/'%•  19.) 

45.  In  man,  the  deciduous  or  milk  teeth, 
begin  to  appear  about  the  sixth  or  seventh 
month,  and  fall  about  the  seventh  year.  Tney 
are  in  number,  twenty  ;  namely,  in  each  jaw  : 

Four  Incisor, 

Two  Canine,  (one  on  each  side,) 

And  four  molar,  (two  on  each  side.) 

46.  The   permanent,   or   teeth    of  second 
dentition,  are  in  number,  thirty-two. 

47.  The  incisor  and  canine  are  the  same  in 
number  as  in  the  first  dentition  ;  but  in  place  of  two   molars  on 
each  side  of  each  jaw,  there  are  five.     The  total  number  of  molar 
teeth  in  adult  man  is  consequently  twenty;  ten  in  each  jaw. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  18. — Teeth  of  an  animal  of  the   order  oarnaria, — t, 
incisor, — a.  canine, — m.  molar  teeth. 

Rrpta  nation  of  Fi<r.  19 — Teeth  of  an  animal  of  the  order  rodentia,— * 
incisor  teeth, — /^    molar  teeth 

43.  Is  the  form  of  the  teeth  thi  same  in  all  animals  ? 
4  i.   Does   the  form   of  the  teeth    of  an    animal  bear  any  relation  to  its 
peculiar  food  ? 

45.  At  what  age  in  man  do  the  first  teeth  begin  to  appear?  When  do  they 
fall  ?  What  is  the  number  of  the  deciduous  teeth  ?  What  is  the  number  of 
each  kind  ? 

46.  What  is  the  number  of  the  permanent  teeth  ? 

47.  How  do  tl.e  permanent  differ  from  the  deciduous  teeth  ?     How  many 
molar  teeth  is  natural  to  an  adult  man? 


62  DIGESTION. 


48.  The  five  molar  feet ')  on  each  side  are  divided    into  two 
kinds,  namely  ;  two  false  molars,  and  three  great  molars. 

OF  INSALIVATION. 

49.  During  the  act  of  mastication,  the  food  is  mixed  with  the 
saliva,    which  phenomenon    is  designated    under    the  name   of 
insalivation. 

F>g.  20.  50.  The  safira  is  a  watery  fluid, 
colourless  and  frothy,  which  is  formed 
in  particular  organs,  called  salivary 
y lands,  (Fig.  20.; 

51.  In  man,  these  glands  are  six  in 
number:  three  on  each  side  of  the  face, 
and  are  called  parotid,   sub-maxillary, 
and  sub-lingual. 

52.  The    parotid   glands    are    the 
largest;    they   are   placed  beneath  the 
skin,  between  the  ear  and  the  jaw,  and 
empty  the  saliva  into  the  mouth,  by  a 

long  straight  tube,  which  opens  on  the  inside  or  internal  face  of 
the  cheeks. 

53.  The  svb-maxiflarif  glands  are  smaller  than  the  parotid,  and 
are  lodged  below  and  behind  the  lower  jaw. 

54.  The  sub-lingual  glands  are  smaller  than  the  preceding,  and 
are  found  under  the  tongue. 

55.  The  saliva  serves  to  render  the  deglutition  of  food    more 
easy,  and  contributes  to  accelerate  digestion. 

OF  DEGLUTITION. 

56.  The  food  conveniently  prepared  by  mastication  and  insali- 
vation, unites  upon  the  back  of  the  tongue  in  a  little  mass  called 
an  alimentary  hall,  or  bolus. 

57.  The  alimentary  ball  is  next  swallowed.  We  give  the  name 
of  deglutition  to  this  phenomenon,  which  consists  in  the  passing 
of  food    from  the  mouth  into  the  stomach,  through  the  pharynx 
and  (Esophagus. 

48.  How  are  the  molar  feelh  distinguished? 

49.  What  is  insalivation  ? 

50.  What  is  saliva  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

51.  How  many  salivary  glands  exist  in  man? 

52.  Where  art"  the  parotid  glands  situated  ?  Where  do  they  open  ?  Which 
of  the  salivary  glands  are  largest? 

53.  What  is  ihe  situation  of  the  sub-maxillary  glands? 

54.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  sub-lingual  glands? 

55.  What  is  the  use  of  the  saliva? 

56.  What  is  the  alimentary  bail  or  bolus  ? 

57.  Wfrat  is  deglutition  ? 


DEGLUTITION. 


.an 


58.  The  opening  which  occupies  the  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
and  which  forms  the  communication  between  this  cavity  and  the 
pharynx,  is  called  the  isfhniux  of  the  throat, — isthmus  faucium. 
During  mastication,  it  is  closed  by  the  veil  of  the  palate,  (velum 
palati,)  but  when  deglutition  is  about  to  take  place,  this  species  of 
curtain  is  raised, and  the  alimentary  ball  is  pushed  into  the  pharynx. 

59.  The  pharynx,  ( Fiy.  2 1 ,  ph.) 
is    a   cavity,  situate   between  the 
base  of  the  cranium,  and  the  front 
of  the  neck;  above,  it  communi- 
cates with  the  nasal  fossa3  by  the 
posterior  nares  or  nostrils,  (an),  as 
well  as  with  the  mouth,  and  below 
it  presents  two  openings  ;  one,  by 
which   it   is  continuous  with  the 
oesophagus,  the  other,  situated    in 
front  and  called  glottis,  by  which 
it  communicates    with  the  larynx 
and  windpipe.     We  may  compare 
it  lo  a  cross-road  where  the  route 
followed  by  the  air  to  get  from  the 
nose  to  the  lungs,  crosses  the  route 
followed  by  the  food  to  get   from 
the  mouth  to  the  oesophagus. 

60.  That   deglutition    may    be 
effected,  the  alimentary  ball  must 

pass  beneath  the  posterior  nostrils  and  over  the  glottis,  without 
entering  it,  and  descend  directly  into  the  oesophagus. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  21. — A  vertical  section  of  the  head  and  neck,  to  show 
how  the  windpipe  or  trachea  opens  into  the  swallow  or  pharynx,  and  how 
this  last  cavity  communicates  with  the  mouth  and  nasal  fossae  or  nostrils, — 
b.  the  mouth, — /.  the  tongue, — vp.  arch  of  the  palate,  which  separates  the 
mouth  from  the  nasal  fossae,—  n,n.  nasal  fossae,  opening  externally  by  the  nos- 
trils and  communicating  with  the  swallow  by  the  posterior  nares  or  hind 
nostiils,  (an.) — i.  isthmus  of  the  fauces, — am.  tonsils. — c.  veil  of  the  palate, — 
pn.  the  swallow  or  pharynx,  cleft  or  divided  like  the  mouth  and  nasal  fossae, 
ft.  oesophagus,  a  tube  which  descends  from  the  swallow  to  the  stomach, — la. 
larynx,  the  superior  opening-  of  which,  called  the  glottis,  (si.)  is  placed  at  the 
anterior  and  inferior  part  of  the  swallow  :  we  see  upon  this  organ,  a  species 
of  little  tongue  or  valve,  called  epiglottis,  (ep.) — t.  trachea  or  windpipe, 
wnich  descends  from  the  larynx  into  the  lungs,— cr.  base  of  the  skull, — 
gsm.  sub-maxillary  gland, — gsl.  sub-lingual  gland, — ct.  thyroid  gland. 


58.  What  is  the  isthmus  of  the  throat  ? 
during  mastication  ? 

59.  What  is  the  pharynx? 

60.  What  is  necessary  to  effectual  deglutition  ? 

G2 


Is  this  cavity  opened  or  closed 


64  CTIYMIFICATION. 


61.  The  veil  of  the  palate,  by  being  raised  up,  and  placed  ob- 
liquely against  the  posterior  wall  of  the  pharynx,  forms  beneath 
the  posterior  nostrils,  a  sort  of  screen,  which  hinders   the   food 
from  mounting  upwards,  and  entering  the  nose  from   behind, 
during  the  act  of  swallowing. 

62.  That  the  food  may  not  enter  the  glottis,  it  closes   at  the 
moment  of  deglutition,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  larynx  is  raised 
up  against  the  base  of  the  tongue,  a  movement  which   forces   a 
valve  situated  above  the  glottis,  and  called  epiglottis,  (  Fiy,  21,  ep.) 
to  fall  and  close  the  opening. 

63  Sometimes,  however,  deglutition  not  being  properly  effected, 
the  food  penetrates  into  the  larynx,  and  at  once  brings  on  a  fit  of 
coughing  :  when  this  happens,  it  is  said ,  "  we  swallow  crosswise." 

64.  The  ces<tpk«yus,  or  gullet,  is  continuous  with  the  pharynx  : 
it  is  a  long  meVnbranous  tube,  which  descends  from  the  superior 
part  of  the  neck,  behind  the  windpipe ;  enters  the  thorax,  passes 
behind  the  heart  and  lungs,  pierces  the  diaphragm,  and  terminates 
in  the  stomach. 

65.  The  pharynx  and  oesophagus,  are  furnished  with  a  layer 
of  fleshy  fibres  which  are  placed  transversely,  in  rings,  which, 
contracting  successively  from  above  downwards,  convey  the  ali- 
mentary ball  into  the  stomach. 


LESSON   VI. 

FUNCTIONS  OP  NUTRITION. — Stomach  digestion,  or  chymijica- 
tion. — lutt'stinal  digestion,  or  chyhftcation. — Bile  and  liver.— 
Pancreas,  and  Pancreatic  Juice. — Large  intestine, — Absorption 
of  chyle. — Chyliferuus  vessels. —  Recapitulation  of  the  function* 
of  nutrition. 

OF  STOMACH  DIGESTION,  OR,  CHYMIFICAT1ON. 

1.  Food  begins  to  be  digested  in  the  stomach ;  it  is  there  trans- 
formed into  chyme,  and  we  give  to  this  phenomenon  the  name 
of  stomach  digestion,  or  chymification. 

61.  What  prevents  the  food  from  entering  into  the  posterior  nares? 

62.  What  hinders  food  from  entering  the  glottis? 

63.  What  is  the  effect  of  food  penetrating  into  the  larynx  ? 

64.  What  is  the  oesophagus? 

65.  How  is  the  alimentary  ball  conveyed  into  the  stomach? 

-.  Where  does  digestion  commence?  Into  what  is  food  changed  in  th« 
stomach  ?  What  is  the  term  applied  to  this  change  of  food  ? 


CHYMIFICATION. 


Fig.  22. 


..CO 


2.  The  slomac/i,  (Fiy. 22,  es.) 
is  a  membranous  pouch,  placed 
transversely    at    the    superior 
part  of  the  abdomen  or  belly. 
it  has  the  form  of  a  bag-pipe, 
and    presents  two   openings; 
one   situate    to   the   left,   and 
called  cardia,    (because   it    is 
nearest  to  the  heart,)  commu-  d> 
nicates  with  the   oesophagus ; 
the  other,  called  pylorus,  (from 
the  Greek,  pulouros,   a    gate- 
keeper, because  it  shuts  up  the 
food  in  the  stomach,  until  con- 
verted into  chyme,)    occupies 
the    right    extremity   of   this 
organ,   and   empties   into  the 
intestines.  • 

3.  Immediately  after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  alimentary  ball,  the 
cardia  closes  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  hinder  it  from  re-ascend- 
ing again  to  the  mouth.     The 
pylorus  is  also  closed,  and  the 

consequence  is,  that  the  food   is  arrested  in  the  stomach, 
forced  to  remain  there  a  considerable  time. 

4.  While  the  aliment  thus  sojourns  in  the  stomach,  it  imbibes  a 
peculiar  liquid,  called  gastric,  jvicf,  which  converts  it  into  chyme. 

5.  The  yaxtric  juice  is  a  watery  and   acid  liquid  which  is 
generated  in  a  great  number  of  very  small  cavities,  lodged  in  the 
thickness  of  the  parietes,  or  coats  of  the  stomach,  and  named 
gastric  fo/lic/es ;  each  one  of  these  follicles  communicates  with 
tne  interior  of  this  organ  by  a  small  pore,  and  thus  empties   the 
gastric  juice  upon  the  food. 


ac 


,r 


and 


Explanation  of  Fig.  22. — Principal  organs  of  digestion, — oe.  oesophagus,  or 
gullet, — es  stomach, — d.  the  duodenum,  the  first  part  of  the  small  intestine, 
— ig.  the  small  intestines, — c.  the  coecurn, — ac.  coecal  appendix,  or  appendix 
vcrmiformis.--co.  colon, — r.  rectum,— y.  the  liver, — of.  the  gall  bladder. — pa 
the  pancreas, — s.  spleen. 


2.  What  is  the  stomach  ?     What  is  the  cardia  '     What  is  the  pylorus.' 

3.  What  takes  place  after  the  alimentary  ball  passes  in  the  stomach  ? 

4.  What  is  added  to  the  alimentary  mass  while  in  the  stomach? 

5.  Wl.ai  is  gastric  juice?     Where  is  it  formed? 

6 


66  CHYLIFICATION. 


6.  By  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  food   is  softened  and 
little  by  little  changed  into  a  thick,  grayish  pap,  which  is  called 
chyme. 

7.  As  soon  as  the  chyme  is  formed,  the  pylorus  relaxes  and  the 
stomach  begins  to  perform  a  series  of*movements  which,  by  de- 
grees, push  the  alimentary  mass  towards  this  opening,  and  then  into 
the  intestine.     These  movements  consist  in  the  successive  con 
traction  of  fleshy  fibres  which  surround  the  stomach  transversely 
and  which  contract,  one  after  the  other  from  left  to  right. 

OF  INTESTINAL  DIGESTION,  OR  CHYLIFICATION. 

8.  The  chyme  which  issues  from  the  stomach  enters  the  intes- 
tine where  it  serves  to  form  chyle. 

9.  The  i/iti'?ti HC  (page  67. Jig.  23,)  is  a  long  membraneous  tube, 
folded  upon  itself,  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  stomach 
and  which,  by  its  opposite  extremity,  opens  outwardly.     It  is 
lodged  in  the  abdomen,  and  is  retained  in  its  place  by  folds  of 
a  very  fine  membrane  called  peritoneum,  which  lines  the  parietes 
or  walls  of  this  cavity.     The  folds  of  peritoneum  which  connect 
the  intestines  to  the  spine,  bear  the  name  of  mesentery. 

10.  The  parietes  of  the  intestine  are  furnished  with  fleshy  fibres 
which  surround  them,  and  which,  by  contracting  successively, 
push  forward  the  matters  contained   within   this  tube.      These 
movements   are   called   vermiform  or   vermicular,  because  they 
resemble  those  of  a  worm  when  crawling. 

11.  The  length  of  the  intestine  is  always  very  considerable,  but 
varies  very  much  in  different  animals.     It  is  remarked   that   in 
those  which  are  nourished  by  flesh  exclusively,  it  is  much  shorter 
than  in  those  which  live  on  vegetable  substances :  thus  in  the 
lion,  winch  is  essentially  carnivorous,  it  is  only  three  times  the 
length  of  the  body ;  while  in  man,  who  is  omnivorous,  its  length 
is  about  six  or  seven  times  that  of  the  body,  and  in  the  sheep 
which  eats  grass  only,  it  is  just  twenty-eight  times  this  length. 

12.  The  intestine  is  composed  of  two  very  distinct  portions 
the  small  intestine,  and  large  intestine. 

I  .  . —  .   .  .-.  — ........     .  ..    ., 

6.  What  is  chyme  ? 

7.  What  takes  place  after  the  chyme  is  formed  ? 

8.  What  is  formed  from  the  chyme  ? 

9.  Whai  is  the  intestine?  Where  is  it  1  dged  ?  What  retains  it  in  its  place  ? 

10.  What  arrangement  enables  the  intestine  to  push  forward  substances 
within  it? 

11.  In  what  class  of  animals  is  the  intestine  longest  ?  What  is  its  length 
in  man  ? 


CHYLIFICATION. 


G7 


Fig.  23. 


13.  The    small     intestine, 
(Fiy  23,  />/.)  is   next  to  the 
stomach ;  it  is  narrower  than 
the  large  intestine,  and  its  ex- 
ternal surface  is  smooth.     Its 
length    is    very    considerable, 
and  it  is  sub-divided  into  three 
portions,    called  :    Duodenum, 
Jejunum,  and  Ilium. 

14.  In    the  small  intestine, 
the  chyle  is  formed,  and  diges- 
tion finished. 

15.  The    phenomenon    of 
chylification    is  produced    by 
the   mixture    of  the    chyme, 
with  the  bile  and  the  pancre- 
atic juice. 

16.  The  bile,  or  gall  is   a 
greenish  and  very  bitter  liquid, 
secreted  by  the  liver. 

17.  The/iiw,  (Fig.  22, /.; 
is  a  large  reddish  gland,   and 
of  a   granular    tissue.      It   is 
lodged  in  the  superior  part  of 

the  abdomen,  to  the  right  of  the  stomach,  and  presents  upon  its 
inferior  surface,  a  membranous  pouch  called  the  aall  bladder,  (o/.) 
The  bile  accumulates  in  this  bladder,  as  in  a  reservoir,  and  is 
afterwards  poured  into  the  duodenum  by  a  narrow  canal,  called 
the  biliary  duct,  or  ditctus  conuuvnis  chofedoc/ius. 

18.  The  pancreatic  juice  is  a  watery  liquid  which  very  much 
resembles  saliva;  it  is  formed   in  a  gland,  situate  behind    the 
stomach,  which  is  called  pancreas.     It  reaches  the  duodenum  by 
a  narrow  canal,  which  arises  in  the  pancreas,  and  empties  near 
the  opening  of  the  biliary  duct. 

19.  The  chyme,  mixed   with  the    bile   and   pancreatic   juice, 
passes  through  the  whole  length  of  the  small  intestine;  and  during 

13.  What  is  the  small  intestine  ?     What  are  its  sub-divisions? 

14.  What  takes  place  in  the  small  intestine? 
15    How  is  chylification  produced? 

16.  What  is  hile? 

17.  What  is  the  liver  ?     Where  is  it  situated  ?  What  part  receives  the  bile 
from  the  gall  bladder. 

18.  What  is  pancreatic  juice?    Where  does  this  pancreatic  juice  go  after 
leaving  the  pancreas? 

19  What  becomes  of  the   chyme  after    being   mixed   with    the  bile  and 
pancreatic  juice  ? 


68  ABSORPTION  OF  CHYLE. 


its  passage  separates  into  two  parts;  one  called  chyle,  which  is  de- 
posited upon  the  sides  of  the  intestine  to  be  absorbed  ;  the  other, 
composed  of  those  parts  of  the  food  which  are  not  nutritious, 
which  continues  its  route  and  enters  into  the  large  intestine. 

OF  THE  EXPULSION  OF   THE  RESIDUE  LEFT  AFTER 
DIGESTION. 

20.  The   alimentary  matters   which   are  not  convertible  into 
chyle,  require  to  be  rejected  and  conveyed  out  of  the  body,  and 
for  this  purpose  they   enter  into  thfe  large  intestine,  and  there 
accumulate.  x 

21.  The  large  intestine'  is  the  second  portion  of  the  intestinal 
tube;  it  differs  from  the  small  intestine  in  its  calibre,  its  puffed 
form  and  in  its  uses.    It  is  divided  into  three  portions  ;  the  crvcum* 
the  co/o//,  and  the  rectum,  (page  67.  fig-  23.) 

22.  The  caecum  is  a  swelling,  or  dilatation  wherein  the  small  in- 
testine terminates;  we  remark  there  a  thin  worm-like  prolonga- 
tion, which  terminates  in  a  cut  de  sac,  or  blind  canal,  and  is  called 
the  ccec.al  appendix* — appendiculn  verniifonnia ;  finally,  we  find 
on  its  inside  a  sort  of  valve,  which  hinders  the  matters  contained 
in  its  cavity  from  returning  into  the  small  intestine. 

23.  The  colon  is  next  to  the  ccecnut,  and  is  continuous  with  the 
-cctuin,  which  terminates  at  the  anal  opening  or  fundament. 

OF  THE  ABSORPTION  OF  CHYLE. 

24.  The  chyle  is  a  peculiar  liquid,  resulting  from  the  digestion 
of  food,  and  is  deposited  upon  the  parietes  of  the  small  intestines. 

25.  The  physical  properties  of  this  liquid,   vary  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  food  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  according  to 
the  animals  in  which  it  is  observed.     In   man,  and    most  mam- 
malia, the  chyle  is  generally  a  white,  opaque  liquid,  very   much 
resembling  milk,  of  an  alkaline,  saltish  taste,  and  of  a   peculiar 
odour.     Examined  by  the  microscope,  it  presents  a  multitude  of 
globules,  analogous  to  those  which  form  the  central  nucleus   of 
the  globules  of  the  blood.     If  left  at  rest,  it  forms  a  mass,  like  the 
blood,  and  after  sometime,  separates  into  three  parts;  a  solid  clot 
which  occupies  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  a  liquid  resembling  serum, 
and  a  thin  pellicle,  which  swims  on  top,  and  seems  to  be   of  a 
%tty  nature. 

20.  What  becomes  of  those  matters  which  are  riot  convertible  into  chyle  ? 

21.  What  is  the  large  intestine  ?     What  are  its  divisions? 

22.  What  ie  the  coecum  ?     What  is  the  crecal  appendix  ? 

23.  What  is  the  colon  ? 

24.  What  is  chyle? 

25.  Is  the  appearance  of  chyle  always  the  same? 


ABSORPTION  OF  CHYLE. 


69 


Fiy.  24. 


26.  The  chyle  is  destined  to  be  mixed  with  the  blood,  to  repair 
the  losses  which  this  liquid  sustains  by    nourishing   the  organs; 
and  that  this  mixture  may  be  effected,  it  is  pumped  up  by  a  par- 
ticular set  of  vessels  which  pour  it  into  the  veins. 

27.  This  passage  of  the  chyle 
from  the  intestine  into  the  circu- 
latory system   is  known  under 
the  name  of  absorption  oj  chyle. 

28.  The  absorption  of  chyle 
is  performed  by  the   lymphatic 
vessels  of  the  intestines,  which 
are  called  for  this  reason,  cky- 
lifcrous    vessels,    ( or     lacteals, 
from  the   appearance  they  pre- 
sent when  filled  with  chyle.) 

29.  These  vessels,  which  are 
extremely    delicate,     arise  (by 
imperceptible   orifices    on    the 
mucous    membrane    that    lines 
the  bowel,)  from  different  parts 
of  the  small  intestine  by  a  multi- 
tude of  branches,  which  little  by 
little,  unite  among  themselves, 
as    we  remarked  of  the  veins; 
and  after  having  traversed   the 


small  organs,  called  mesenteric 
glands,  empty  into  a  conduit  or 
canal,  called  the  thoracic  duct, 

(Fig.  24.) 


Explanation  of  Fiy.  24.— Represents  a  portion  of  the  small  intestine  (t) 
upon  which  we  see  the  chyliferous  vessels,  'he  thoracic  duct  and  the  course  fol. 
lowed  by  the  ohyle  to  reach  t!ie  vrins. — m.  part  of  the  peritoneum  which 
serves  to  hold  the  intestines  in  their  place,  and  which  is  called  mesentery. — 
ce.  chyliferous  vessels. — gm.  rnesenteric  glands. — r.  reservoir  of  Pecquet  or 
receptacle  of  chyle,  which  is  a  slight  dilatation  of  the  thoracic  duct,  soon 
after  its  commencement.— I.  lymphatic  vessels  coming  from  all  parts  of  the 
body  to  the  receptacle  of  the  chy'e. — ct.  thoracic  duct  which  ascends  along 
side  the  aorta,  (an.)  passes  behind  the  heart  (c.)  and  empties  into  the  left 
sub.clavian  vein,  (vsc)-v  n.  vena  cava,  descending  to  the  right  auricle. 

96.  What  is  the  use  of  Chyle  ?  Into  what  blood  vessels  does  the  chyle 
tnter? 

27.  What  name  is  given  to  the  passage  of  chyle  into  the  circulation  ? 

28.  How  is  the  absorption  of  chyle  effected  ? 

•29.  What  are  the  chyliferous  vessels?     Where  do  they  arise  ?     Where  do 
they  empty  ? 
fi* 


70  FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION. 


30.  This  duct,  or    canal,   which  also  receives  the  lymphatic 
vessels  from  other  parts  of  the  body,  presents  at  its  inferior  ex- 
tremity, a  dilatation  called  the  reservoir  of  Pecquet,  or  the  jecrp- 
incnlnni  i-hyli ;  it  lies  closely  glued  to  the  anterior  face  of  the 
vertebral  column  or  spine,  and  mounts  towards  the  thorax,  to 
terminate  near  the  base  of  the  neck,  in  the  subclavian  vein  o 
the  left  side 

31.  The  chyle,  in  passing  through  the  mesenteric  glands  seem 
to  be  perfected  in  some  degree  ;  it  assumes  a  rosy  tint  and  be 
comes  coagulable  like  the  blood :  but   it  still  differs    very  much 
from  this  liquid,  and  we  do  not  know,  with  certainty,  in  what 
part  of  the  body  it  is  changed  into  blood. 

RECAPITULATION  OF  THE   FUNCTIONS    OF   NUTRI- 
TION. 

Such  are  the  different  functions  by  the  aid  of  which  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  body  is  effected. 

32.  The  alimentary   substances,  necessary  for   renewing  the 
materials  of  which  the  organs  are  composed,  are  derived,  as  we 
have  seen,  from  sources  exterior  to  the  animal,  and,  in  order  to 
serve  the  purposes  of  nutrition,  require  to  undergo  a  peculiar 
preparation  to  which  we  give  the  name  of  digestion. 

33.  The  chief  of  the  functions  of  nutrition  is,  consequently,  in 
man  as  in  all  other  animals,  that  of  DIGESTION. 

34.  The  nutritious  matters,  thus  elaborated,  do  not  sojourn  in 
the  digestive  cavity;  in  order  to  support  the  organs,  they  pass  from 
this  cavity  into  the  very  substance  of  the  body  itself,  to  be  mixed 
with  the  blood.     To  this  transportation  from  without  to  within, 
and  the  passage  of  all  substances  from  without  into  the  torrent 
of  the  circulation,  is  applied  the  term  ABSORPTION. 

35.  The  blood,  to  convey  in  this  way,  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
materials  to  repair  the  organs  must  necessarily  be  the  seat  of  con- 
tinual currents,  and  in  fact,  this  liquid  finds  its  way  wherever  there 
is  life  to  be  supported:  this  phenomenon  is  called  the  CIRCULATION 

30.  Where  is  the  thoracic  duct?  Where  does  it  terminate  ? 

31 .  What  change  does  chyle  undergo  while  passing  through  the  mesenteric 
glands  /  In  what  part  of  the  body  is  chyle  changed  into  blood  ? 

32.  To  be  available  for  nutrition  what  process  does  food  necessarily  un- 
dergo? 

33.  What  is  the  chief  function  of  nutrition? 

34.  What  occurs  next  after  digestion? 

35.  In  order  to  fulfil  its  office  of  nourishing  the  organs,  what  is  necessary 
4x>  the  blood? 


FUNCTIONS  OF/ RELATION. 71 

36.  In  acting  upon  the  tissues  of  the  organs,  the  blood  loses 
a  part  of  its  vivifying  properties,  and  in  order  to  regain  them, 
requires  to  be  brought  into  contact   with  the  atmospheric  air, 
which  contact  constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  RESPIRATION. 

37.  Finally,  the  materials  separated  from  the  substance  of  the 
organs,  in  consequence  of  the  nutritive  movement,  are  carried 
along  by  the  blood,  and  are  afterwards  separated  and  rejected  from 
the  system  in  the  form  of  liquids,  or  of  vapours.     These  acts, 
which  are  in  a  measure,  the  completion  of  the  nutritive  process, 
bear  the  general  n  imes  of  EXHALATION  and  SECRETION. 

38.  To  recapitulate ;  we  see  then  that  the  functions  of  nutri- 
tion are  constituted  of  several  series  of  phenomena,  each  having 
its  seat  in  different  organs,  and  that  these  different  acts  are  : 

1st.    Digestion; 
2nd.  Absorption ; 
3rd.  Circulation; 

4th    Simultaneous  decomposition  and  recomposition  of  the 
organs  of  nutrition,  properly  so  called ; 
5th.  Respiration; 
6th.  Exhalation  and  Secretion. 


LESSON    VII. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  RELATION — Nervous  system  and  sensibility. 
FUNCTIONS  OF  RELATION. 

1 .  The  phenomena  of  animal  life  or  life  of  relation  depend  upon 
two  faculties  :  that  of  sensation  and  that  of  motion. 

2.  These  faculties,   which  do  not  exist  in  an  equal  degree  of 
perfection  in  all  animals,  are  wanting  in  vegetables.     They  are 
the  result  of  an  action  of  two  apparatuses  ;  the  apparatus  of  sen- 
sations and  the  apparatus  of  motion. 

3.  The  apparatus  of  sensations  is  composed  of  the   nervous 
system  and  the  organs  of  the  senses. 

36.  What  is  the  obje<  t  of  respiration  ? 

37.  What  comoletes  the  phenomenon  of  nutrition? 

38.  What  nre  the  several  functions  of  nutrition? 

1.  Upon  what  do  the  phenomena  of  the  functions  of  relation  depend? 

2.  Do  the  faculties  of  sensation  and  motion  exist  in  an  equal  degree  in 
«1J  animals?    Do  they  exist  in  vegetables?     Upon  what  do  these  faculties 
depend  ? 

3.  Wh^t  parts  compose  the  apparatus  of  sensation*? 

H 


72 THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

4.  The  apparatus;  of  motion  is  composed  of  the  muscles,  of  the 
bones,  and  of  some  other  organs. 

APPARATUS  OF  THE  SENSATIONS. 

5.  Sensibility  is  the  faculty  of  receiving  impressions  from  sur- 
rounding objects. 

6  This  faculty  has  its  seat  in  a  particular  apparatus  called  the 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

7.  It  is  also  through  the  medium  of  this  nervous    system  that 
motion  t  ikes  place,  that  the  influence  of  the  WILL  makes  itself  felt 
in  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  that  the  phenomena  of  intelli- 
gence is  manifested. 

8.  We  distinguish  in  this  apparatus  two  principal  parts,  which 
are  called  the  nervous  system  of  animal  life,  and  the  nervous 
system  of  organic  life. 

9.  The  iiervonx  system  of  animal  life  presides  over  the  func- 
tions of  the  life  of  relation  ;  it  is  also  called  the   cerebro-spinat 
sy*t<>ni,  because  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  the  most  impor- 
tant parts  of  it.  (page  73  /?>/,  25.) 

10.  The  term  eiice/ilta/oii,  is  applied  to  the  great  nervous  mass 
formed  by  these  two  organs  and  the  other  central  parts  of  the 
nervous  system,  lodged  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium  and  in  the 
canal  which  exists  in  the  whole  length  of  the  vertebral  column. 

11.  The  cranium  is  a  great  cavity  which  occupies  all  the  supe- 
rior and  posterior  parts  of  the  head,  and  which  at  the  inferior  part 
or  base,  presents  several  holes.     One  of  these  holes,  which  is  very 
much  larger  than  the  other  and  placed  a  little  behind,  gives  it  a 
communication  with  the  veitcbm I  canal. 

1*2.  The  vertebral  canal  is  a  cavity  hollowed  out  in  the  verte- 
bral column  or  spine,  of  which  it  occupies  the  whole  length  ;  it 
consequently  descends  from  the  head,  all  along-  the  back  to  the 
lowest  extremity  of  the  trunk  and  even  into  the  tail,  when  the 
animal  is  provided  with  an  appendix  of  this  sort. 

4.  What  constitutes  the  apparatus  of  motion? 

5.  What  is  sensibility' 

6.  Upon  what  does  sensibility  depend  ? 

7.  Through   what  means  is  the  influence  of  the  WILL  conveyed  to  di£ 
ferent  parts  of  the  bo  iy  ? 

8.  What  are  the  principal  parts  into  which  the  apparatus  of  sensation  is 
divided  ? 

9.  What  is  the  office  of  the  nervous  system  of  animal  life  ?     WLj  is  it 
called  the  cercbro-spinal  system  ? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  encephalou? 

11.  What  is  the  cranium  ? 

12.  What  is  the  vertebral  canal? 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


73 


When  we  study  the  skeleton  we  shall  recur  to  the  description 
of  these  parts. 


13.  The  brain,  or  cerebrum 
(Fig.  25,  c.)  is  a  voluminous 
viscus,  of  a  very  soft  texture, 
and  of  an  oval  form,  whiA 
fills  the  greatest  part  of  the 
anterior  of  the  cranium.  It 
is  divided  on  a  middle  line, 
by  a  very  deep  furrow,  into 
two  halves  called  liemisphms 
iff  the.  brain.  Each  of  these 
hemispheres  is  subdivided,  in 
its  turn,  into  three  lobes,  and 
presents  on  its  surface  a  great 
number  of  hollows  and  projec- 
tions, folded  on  themselves, 
called  the  convolutions  of  ike 
brain.  We  find  in  the  inte- 
rior, cavities  called  ventricles, 
and  we  distinguish  in  the  sub- 
stance of  which  it  is  composed, 
two  sorts  of  matter,  one  white, 
called  medullary,  which  occu- 
pies the  interior  of  the  mass  of 
the  brain,  and  the  other,  of  a 
greyish  colour,  forms  its  super- 
ficies, and  is  called  cortical. 

14.  Behind  and  below  the 
cerebrum,  or  brain,  we  find, 
also  in  the  cavity  of  the 
cranium,  another  nervous 
mass,  very  much  smaller,  but 
of  analogous  structure,  which 
is  called  the  cerebellum.  (Fig. 
25,  en.) 


Fig.  25. 


ps 


Explanation  of  Fig  25.— The  nervous  system.— c.  the  cerebrum. — cv.  the 
cerebellum.— we.  the  spinal  marrow  from  which  arises  a  great  many  nerves 
which  ramify  over  all  parts  of  the  body.— pb.  the  biachial  plexus  or  reunion 
or  assemblage  of  the  different  nerves  which  are  distributed  to  t'.ie  arms. — ps. 
^the  sciatic  plexus  or  assemblage  of  nerves  which  form  the  great  sciatic 
i.erve  which  descends  to  the  lower  extremities. 

13.  What  is  the  brain  ?     ITow  is  it  divided  ?  What  are  ventricles  ?   Wha! 
is  the  difference  between  the  medullary    and  cortical  parts  of  the  brain  ? 

14.  What  does  the  cranium  contain  besides  the  cerebrum  ? 


74  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


15.  The  spinal  marrow,  (Fig.  25,  me.)  arises  from  the  inferior 
part  of  the  brain  and  cerebellum.     It  has  the  form   of  a   thick, 
whitish  cord,  and  descends  from  the  interior  of  the  cranium  to 
the  lowest  part  of  the  canal  which  pierces  the  vertebral  column. 

16.  We  give  the  name  of  medulla   oblonyata,  to  the  superior 
portion  of  the  spinal  marrow  which  te  enclosed  in  the  cranium. 

17.  The  eticephalon  (which  includes  the  brain  and  spinal  mar- 
row, also  called,  the  cerekro-spiual  axis,)  is  surrounded  by  different 
membranes,  which  serve  to  prevent  it  from  wounding  itself  against 
the  sides  of  the  bony  case  which  encloses  it.     One  of  these  mem- 
branes, called  the  artichnoid,  is  extremely  fine;  another  called  the 
dura  mufet,  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  strong,  and  in  the  interior  of 
the  cranium   forms  plaits   or  folds  which   descend  between  the 
hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum,  and   between   this  organ  and  the 
cerebellum,  to  sustain  these  parts,  and  prevent  them  from  press- 
ing one  upon  the  other. 

18.  A  great  number  of  soft  whitish  cords  go  from  the   brain 
and  spinal  marrow  to  all  parts  of  the  body ;  they  are  designated 
by  the  name  of  nerves,  (Fiy.  25.) 

19.  These  nerves  arise,  some  from  the   base   of  the    brain, 
others  from  the  sides  of  the  spinal  marrow.     In  man  there   are 
forty  three  pairs,  of  which,  the  first  thirteen  arise  from  the  brain 
and  medulla  oblongata,  and  pass  out  of  the  cranium  through  holes 
in  its  base:  and  the  remaining  thirty  pairs  arise  from  the  spinal 
marrow,  and  go  out  of  the  vertebral  canal  by  holes,  situate   on 
each  side  of  the  spine. 

20.  The  nerves  are  divided  into  branches  and  ramuscies,  which 
are    spread   out  in  the  different  organs,  and  in  them  become  so 
extremely  fine  as  to  escape  our  vision.     They    possess   extreme 
sensibility,  and  the  slightest  wound  of  one  of  them  causes  acute 
pain. 

21.  The  nerves  give  to  different  parts  of  the   body  to    which 
they  are   distributed,  the  sensibility   which   these   parts   enjoy. 
They  convey  the  impressions  received  by  the  organs  to  the  brain, 
which  is  the  seat  of  the  perception  of  sensations. 


15.  What  is  the  spinal  marrow? 

16.  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata  ? 

1 7    What  are  the  coverings  of  tne  encephalon  ?    Wh  it  is  the  dura  mater  ? 
IS.  What  name  is  given  to   those  cords   which  go   from   the    brain  and 
pinil  marrow  to  all  parts  of  the  b  idy  ? 

IP.  What  is  the  origin    of  the  nerves ?     How  many  pairs   of  nerves  are 
found  in  mm/   Wh.tis  the  origin  or  the  first  thirteen  pairs  of  nerves  in  man? 

20.  How  arc  the  nerves  divided  ?     To    what  part  are   they  distributed  > 
Are  they  s<  nsibip  ?  .. 

21.  What  office  i«  performed  by  the  nerves  ? 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


75 


me 


It  is  also  through  the  medium  of  the  nerves  that  the  influence 
of  the  WILL  is  communicated  from  the  brain  to  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  that  motion  is  performed. 

22.  Indeed,  if  we  cut  the  nerves  which  go  to  a  limb,  it  becomes 
immediately  insensible,  and  ceases  to  execute  voluntary  motion, 
or  in  other  words,  it  is  paralysed. 

23.  Certain  nerves  serve  only   for   the  Fig.  26. 
transmission   of    sensations,    others   serve 

only  for  motion,  but  the  greater  part  fulfil 
both  these  functions  at  the  same  time  ;  this 
arises  from  the  union  of  a  certain  number 
of  nervous  fibres,  of  which  some  possess 
the  first  of  these  faculties,  and  others  the 
second.  At  the  point  where  the  nerves 
issue  from  the  spinal  marrow,  these  two 
species  of  fibres  are  still  separate,  and  con- 
stitute two  distinct  roots,  one  situated  be- 
fore the  other  (/%.  26.) ;  the  anterior  root 
serves  for  motion,  and  the  posterior  for  sensibility.  When  in  a 
living  animal  we  cut  the  anterior  roots  of  all  these  nerves,  it  is 
incapable  of  moving,  but  preserves  its  sensibility ;  while  if  we 
cut  the  posterior  roots  without  wounding  the  anterior,  the  con- 
trary is  true. 

[The  gang  Home  nervous  system^also  called  the  great  sympathetic 
nerve,  or  nervous  system  of  organic  fife,  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  small,  very  distinct  nervous  masses,  which  are  united  to  each 
other  by  medullary  cords  and  different  nerves,  which  anastemose 
(communicate  by  branches)  with  the  cerebro-spinal  system,  or  are 
distributed  to  the  neighbouring  organs.  These  nervous  centres 
bear  the  name  of  ganglions:  they  are  found  in  the  head,  neck, 
thorax  and  abdomen.  Most  of  them  are  placed  symmetrically  on 
each  side  of  a  middle  line,  in  front  of  the  vertebral  column,  and 
thus  form  a  double  chain  from  the  head  to  the  pelvis;  but  they  are 
found  in  other  parts :  near  the  heart,  for  example,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  stomach.] 


Ex  pin  n  at.  of  Fig.  26.  me — A  portion  of  the  spinal  marrow,  showing  tho 
manner  in  which  the  n<  rves  ari.se  by  two  sets  or  bundles  of  roots. — r.  tmterior 
roots  serving  for  motion. — rp.  posterior  roots  serving  for  sensibility. — g 
ganglionic  swelling  of  a  posterior  root. 

2*2.  What  effect  would  be  produced  by  cu?  ting  the  r/frves  which  goto  i  limb? 

'J3.  Do  all  nerves  perform  the  same  functions?  How  is  it  that  some 
nerves  serve  for  motion  and  also  to  transmit  sensation  ?  Which  nen'ous 
roots  serve  for  motion  ?  Which  nervous  roots  serve  for  sensation  ?  If  we  cut 
the  anterior  roots  of  the  nerves  in  a  living  animal  what  happens  ?  What  r« 
•suits  from  cutting  the  posterior  roots  ? 

H2 


76  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


24.  That  sensations  may  be  perceived,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
nerves  transmit  them   from  the  point  where  they  are  produced 
to  the  brain,  either  directly,  or  through  the  intervention    of  the 
spinal  marrow. 

25.  The  brain  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  seat  of  the  WILL  and  of 
the  perception  of  sensations ;  when,  in  consequence  of  a  wound 
or  strong    compression,  this  organ  cannot  perform  its  functions, 
the   animal    becomes    insensible,   ceases   to    execute   voluntary 
motions  and  falls  into  a  state  resembling  profound  sleep. 

26.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  nerves  which  arise  from  the  right 
side  of  the  spinal  marrow  communicate  with  the  left  hemisphere 
of  the  cerebrum  and  vice  versa ;  this  results  from  the  crossing  of 
the  fibres  in  the  medulla  nblongutn,  and  hence  it  is  that  when  the 
brain  is  paralysed  on  one  side  only,  it  is  the  members  of  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  body  which  lose  their  sensibility  and  motion. 

27.  Farther,  the  brain,  although  the  seat  of  perception  of  sen- 
sations, is  itself  very  slightly  sensible  ;  we  may  prick  or  cut  it  in 
a  living  animal  without  causing  pain. 

28.  The  spinal  marrow  is,  on  the  contrary,  extremely  sensi- 
ble, and  when  it  is  wounded,  the  animal  is  convulsed  ;  if  it  be  cut 
or  compressed  so  that  it  cannot  perform  its  functions,  all  the  parts 
of  the  body  whose  nerves  arise  below  the  point  of  injury  are  at 
once  paralysed. 

29.  The  cerebellum  seems  to  be  designed  to  regulate  motion. 

30.  The  second  portion  of  the  nervous  system,  or  NERVOUS 
SYSTEM  OF  ORGANIC  LIFE,  communicates  with  the  nerves    which 
arise  from  the  spinal  marrow  by  a  great  number  of  small  fila- 
ments, but  it  is  distinct  from  it. 

31.  This  apparatus,  which  is  also  designated  under  the  name 
of  yanglionic.  system,  or  great  sympathetic,  on  account  of  the  con- 
nection which  it  establishes  between  different  parts  of  the  body, 
Is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small  nervous  masses  called 

24    What  is  necessary  to  enable  an  animal  to  perceive  impressions  made 
upon  it? 

25.  What  occurs,  if,  from  any  cause,  the  functions  of  the  brain  be  inter- 
rupted ? 

26.  What  is  remarkable  in  the  origin  of  the  nerves  ? 

27.  Is  the  brain  itself'sensible  ? 

28.  Is  the  spinal  marrow  sensible  or  not ?    When   the  spinal  marrow 
compressed  or  wounded^what  occurs? 

2).   What  seem-s  to  be  the  office  of  the  cerebellum? 

30.  Does  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life  communicate  with   the  ner- 
vous system  of  relation  ? 

31.  Why  is  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life  called  the  great  sympa. 
thetic  ?  Why  is  it  also  called  the  ganglionic  system  ?   What  is  a  ganglion  ? 
To  what  parts  are  those  nerves  distributed  which  arise  from  the  ganglion*? 


THE  SKNSES.  77 


ganglions^  situated  in  the  neck,  in  the  thorax,  and  in  the  abdomen 
in  front  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  tied  to  each  other  by  com- 
municating cords ;  a  multitude  of  nerves  arise  from  these  gang- 
lions and  are  spread  out  in  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  intestines,  the 
glands  and  other  organs  of  vegetative  life. 

32  These  parts  of  the  body  which  receive  their  nerves  from 
the  ganglionic  system  are  slightly  sensible,  and  the  movements 
which  they  execute  are  independent  of  the  WILL. 

33.  The  principal  nerves  of  sensibility  terminate  in  particular 
organs,  through  the  medium  of  which  they  receive  and  transmit 
to  the  brain,  the  sensations  produced  upon  us  by  surrounding 
objects.  These  organs  are  each  destined  to  receive  sensations  of 
a  certain  kind,  and  are  called  organs  of  the  senses. 


LFSSON   VIII. 

FUNCTIONS  OP  RELATION — Sense  of  touch — Skin — 
Hair — Heard— Kails — Horns — Mode  of  formation — Sense  oj 
smell — Olfactory  apparatus — Sense  of  taste — Sense  of  hearing  — 
Jluditory  apparatus. 

1.  We  give  the  name  of  Senses  to  those  faculties  by  the  aid  of 
which  animals  take  cognizance  of  the  properties  of  bodies  which 
surround  them. 

2.  Bodies  may  differ  from  each  other  in  different  ways ;    in 
their  weight,  their  hardness,  their  volume,  their  temperature,  &o. 
by  their  odour,  their  taste,  their  form,  and  their  color,  or  by  the 
sounds  which  they  afford. 

3.  These  various  qualities  cannot  be  appreciated  by  the  same 
organ ;  the  organ  which  perceives  taste  for  example,  is  not  sen- 
sible of  the  color,  or  odour  of  bodies ;  therefore,  the  faculty  of 
experiencing  sensations  from  the  influence  derived  from  each  one 
of  these  different  kinds  of  the  properties  of  external  objects,  is 
the  attribute  of  a  particular  organ. 

32.  Do  the  movements  of  those  parts  of  the  body  supplied  with  nervea 
from  the  ganglionic  system,  depend  upon  the  influence  of  the  WILL?     Are 
the  (>;irts  thus  supplied  very   sensible? 

33.  How  do  the  principal  nerves  of  sensibility  terminate? 

1.  What  arc  the  senses  ? 

2.  How  do  bodies  differ  from  each  other? 

3.  I-  any  one  organ  capable  of  appreciating  all  the  properties  of  bodies* 


78  SENSE  OF  TOUCH. 


4.  These  faculties  or  senses,  in  man  and  most  animals  aie  rive 
in  number;  namely  :  touvh,  t<ist<>,  sine//,  hearing,  and  sight. 

5  Touch  and  taste  are  only  exercised  upon  bodies  which  are 
brought  into  contact  with  those  organs  which  are  the  seat  of 
those  senses.  Smell,  hearing,  and  sight,  make  us  acquainted 
with  certain  properties  of  objects  at  a  greater  or  less  distance 
frv»m  us. 

6.  All-  animals  do  not  possess  the  senses  in  an  equal  number 
with  man ;  in  some,  there  is  neither  organ  of  sight,  nor  organ  of 
hearing,  nor  organ  of  smell ;  such  is  the  oyster  for  example  :   in 
others,  one  or  another  of  these  instruments  is  wanting. 

We  will  now  consider  each  one  of  the  senses,  and  the  organs 
which  are  the  seat  of  them. 

OB^  THE  SENSE  OF  TOUCH. 

7.  Touch  is  the  sense  which  reveals  to  us  the  contact  of  foreign 
bodies  with  our  organs  and  informs  us  of  the  nature  of  their  sur- 
faces whether  rough  or  smooth,  their  movements,  the   degree  of 
their  consistence,  their  temperature,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  their 
form,  volume  and  weight. 

8.  Tact  is  a  passive  touch,  but  this  function  sometimes  becomes 
active :  it  is  more  especially  called  touch,  when  the  sensibility  is 
most  exquisite  and  the  surface,  which  is  its  seat,  can  in  a  manner 
mould  itself  to  objects. 

9.  Tactile  sensibility  is  spread  out  in  all  parts  of  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  resides  in  the  skin. 

1 0.  The  skin  is  the  membrane  which  covers   or  clothes  the 
body.     It  is  principally  composed  of  two  parts,  one  called  the 
corivm  or  derma,  or  true  skin,  the  other,  the  epidermis  or  cuticle,  or 
scarf-skin. 

1 1.  The  epidermis  is  the  most  superficial  layer  of  the  skin;  it 
is  a  sort  of  thick  varnish  which  covers  the  derma  and  serves  to 
protect  it  against  the  contact  of  hard  bodies,  and  prevent  it  from 
oecoming  dry  by  the  action  of  the  air. 

12.  The  derma  is  the  thickest  and  most  important  part  of  the 
kin;  it  is  beneath  the  epidermis,  and  adheres  to  the  subjacent 

^       4.  What  is  the  number  of  the  senses?   What  are  they  called? 

5.  What  is  necessary  t«;rthe  exercise  of  the  faculties  of  touch  and  taste? 
What  faculties  convey  to  us  notions  of  bodies  withou'  contact  ? 

6.  Have  all  animals  the  same  number  of  senses  as  man? 

7.  What  is  touch  ? 

8.  What  is  tact?  When  does  it  become  touch? 

9.  What  is  the  seat  of  tactile  *•&  sibility  ? 

10.  What  is  the  skin  ?  Of  what  pans  is  it  composed? 

11.  What  is  the  epidermis  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  epidermis  or  cuticle  ? 

12.  What  is  the  derma  ?  Where  is  it  placed  ?    Has  'he  derma  anv  nerves? 
What  fbrwi  the  napilliE  of  the  derma  ?   Where  is  the  derma  most  sensible  ? 


SENSE  OF  TOUPH. 79 

parts  by  its  internal  fase.  A  considerable  number  of  nerves  are 
distributed  in  it,  and  form  upon  its  surface  small  elevations  called 
papillfe.  To  these  nerves  the  skin  owes  its  sensibility,  which 
is  greatest  in  those  parts  where  there  is  the  greatrst  number  of 
papillae,  as  in  the  ends  of  the  fingers  for  example. 

13.  The  epidermis  is  applied  upon  these  nervous  pnpilta  :  it  is 
not  itself  endowed  with  sensibility,  and  renders  the  sense  of  touch 
Jess  delicate   in  proportion  to  its  thickness.     Frequent  contact 
with  rough  and  hard  substances  tends  to  increase  its  thickness, 
thus,  the  hands  of  those  persons  who   perform  laborious  work 
have  the  epidermis  thicker  and  less  sensible  than  those  whose 
occupation  does  not  place  them  in  the  same  circumstances. 

14.  Hair,  beard,  nails,  horns,  &c.,  are  productions  formed  by 
small  secreting  organs,  lodged  in  the  substance  of  the  skin  ;  they 
are  developed,  like  the  teeth,  by  the  addition  of  new  portions  of 
their  substance  upon  that  already  firmed,  and  are  not  like  living 
organs,  the  seat  of  a  nutritive  movement.     We  give  the  name  of 
bulb,  to  the  secreting  organs  of  the  h  dr  and  beard. 

15.  Finally,  there  exists  in  the  thickness  of  the  derma,  little 
follicles  which  secrete  the  sweat,  a  liquid  which  is  more  or  less  acid. 

16.  The  contact  of  an  object  with  any  p->int  of  the  surface  of 
the  skin  is  su  indent  to  determine  a  sensation  there;  b-it,   that 
touch  may  be  exercised,  it  is  necessary  that  the  part  where  this 
contact  takes  place  shall  be  so  formed  as  to  apply  itself  exactly, 
and,  in  a  manner,  mould  itself  to  the  object  which  the  animal 
wishes  to  feel ;  this  kind  of  perfected  tact  has  its  seat  in  particu- 
lar organs  called,  organs  of  touch. 

17.  In  man,  the  hand  is  the  special  organ  of  touch,  and  its 
structure  is  admirably  well  adapted  to  the  exercise  of  this  sense. 
The  fineness   of  the   skin,  its  great  sensibility,  the   species   of 
cushion  formed  by  the  subcutaneous  fat  at  the  extremities  of  the 
fingers,  the  length  and  flexibility  of  these  organs  and  the  capabili- 
ty of  opposing  the  thumb  to   the  other  fingers,  like  a   pair   ot 
plyers  or  forceps,  are  so  many  conditions  essentially  favourable 
to  the  delicacy  of  this  sense,  and  enables  us  to  appreciate   with 
great  exactitude  the  qualities  of  those  bodies  we  may  feel. 

13.  Is  the  epidermis  itself  sensibl :  ?  What  effort  has  the  thickening   of 
the  cuticle  upon  the  -ensibility  of  a  part? 

14.  How  are  hair,  beard,  horn",  nails,  (fee.  produced  ?  What  name  is  given 
Jo  the  secreting1  organs  of  the  h;iir  and  beard? 

15.  What  is  the  origin  of  sweat  or  perspiration? 

16.  Does  contact  of  an  object  with  any  part  of  the  skin  deternrne  sensa- 
tion a*  that  part?  Is  this  contact  sufficient  f  r  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  ot 
touch  / 

17.  What  is  the  organ  of  touc'i  in  mm?     Whit  are  the  circumstance! 
rUich  render  the  hand  soadnvrably  adapt  d  to  i's  purpose  ? 


80  SENSE  OF  TASTE,  AND  OF  SMELL. 


18.  Most  animals  have  very  imperfect  instruments  of  touch, 
and,  in  general,  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  their  bodies  is 
slightly  or  not  at  all  sensible,  on  account  of  the  hairs,  feathers 
scales,  and  other  hard  parts,  with  which  their  skins  are  covered. 

OF  THE  SENSE  OF  TASTE. 

19.  Taste  is  a  sense  which  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  savor 
or  taste  of  substances 

20.  Like  touch,  taste  is  exercised  by  contact  only.     Its  seat  is 
in  the  mouth. 

21.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  where  this  peculiar  kind  of  sensi- 
bility resides  are,  the  edges  of  the  tongue  and  the  arch  of  the 
palate. 

22.  All  substances  are  not  sapid ;  those  which  are  not  soluble 
in  water  seldom  are. 

23.  In  order  to  act  upon  the  sense  of  taste,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  sapid  substances  which  the  animal  introduces  into  its  mouth, 
should  be  dissolved  by  the  fluids  poured  into  this  cavity  by  the 
salivary  glands,  or  by  some  other  liquid.     It  is  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, that  savors  are  perceived  by  the  nerves  of  taste,  which  are 
spread  out  upon  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  and  which  transmit  to 
the  brain  the  impressions  of  this  sense. 

OF  THE  SENSE  OF  SMELL. 

24.  The  sense  of  smell  reveals  to  us  the  existence  of  odours 
and  enables  us  to  appreciate  them. 

25.  Odours  are  produced  by  extremely  fine  particles,  which 
escape  from  odorous  substances,  and  which  are  diffused  in  the 
air  like  a  vapour. 

26.  That  odours  may  act  upon  the  sense  of  smell,  the  odoriferous 
particles  must  come  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the   organ 
wherein  this  sense  is  seated. 

27.  The  sense  of  smell  is  exercised  in  a  peculiar    apparatus, 
called  the  nasal  fossae. 

18.  Are  most  animals  well  supplied  with  organs  of  touch  ? 

19.  What  is  taste? 

20.  VV  here  is  the  sense  of  taste  situated?     Can  this  sense  be  exercised 
without  contact  ? 

21.  What  parts  of  the  mouth  are  endowed  with  the  sense  of  taste? 

22.  Are  all  substances  sapid  ? 

23.  What  conditions  are  necessary  to  operate  on  the  sense  of  taste  " 

24.  What  is  the  sense  of  smell  ? 

25.  How  are  odours  produced  ? 

26.  What   is  a  necessary   condition  in  order  to  act  upon   the  sense  of 
•mell  ? 

27    Where  is  the  *ense  of  smell  situated? 


OF  SMELL.  81 


28.  The  nasal  fossa,  (Fig.  27.)  are 
two  large  cavities  in  the  face,    which 
communicate  externatty  by  the  open- 
ings of  the  nose  or  nostrils,  and   open 
behind,    into   the    pharynx,     by     the 
posterior  nares  or  nostrils.  The  walls 
of  these  cavities,  form  in  front,  a  more 
or  less  prominent  ridge,    which    con- 
stitutes the  nose,  and  a   verticle   par- 
tition s^p  irat.es  one  from    the  other. 
Finally,  they  are  lined  by  a   soft  and 
very   delicate  membrane,  called   the 
pituitary  m<  nthrane. 

29.  The  first  pair  of  cerebral  nerves  which  are  called  the  olfac- 
tory nerves,  are  distributed  to  this  membrane,  and  transmit  to  the 
brain  the  impressions  produced  by  the  contact    of  odoriferous 
particles 

30.  The  air  which  traverses  the  nasal  fossae  in  order  to  reach 
the  lungs,  carries  with  it  the  odorous  particles  of  substances,  and 
it  is  by  touching  the  pituitary  membrane  that  these  particles  pro- 
duce  the  sensations  of  smells.     The  form  of  the  nasal   fossae   is 
such,  that  the  air  is  carried  towards  their  superior  parts,  where 
the  greatest   number  of  the  delicate  filaments  of  the  olfactory 
nerve  is  distributed. 

31.  It  is  vulgarly  believed  that  the   humors    with   which  the 
pituitary  membrane  is  lubricate  1  come  from  the  brain  ;  but    this 
is  an  error.     They  are  secreted  by  this  membrane  itself,  and  the 
slight  diseases  known  under  the  name  of  cold  in  the  head,  rheum 
oj  the.  head,  are  nothing  else  than  inflammation  of  this  membrane. 


Explanation  of  Fiy  27.— The  nasal  £ >ssae  open  and  seen  from  the  inside. — • 
c.  the  cranium  sf  the  frontal  .sinuses,  c  .vities  hollowed  out  in  the  substance 
of  the  frontal  bo  >e,  and  in  communication  witli  the  nasal  fossae. — no.  the 
olf.cory  nerve  r.  its  branches  ramifying1  on  t'>e  pituitary  or  schneirlerian 
membrane.— cs.  cm.  ci.  superior,  middle  and  inferior  turbinatcd  bones  ;  these 
are  projec  in<r  pl.tes  of  bone  which  ^erve  to  increase  the  extent  of  the  surface 
of  the  organ  of  smell— ph.  the  swallow  or  pharynx— t.  the  opening  of  the 
Eustachian  tube. 

28.  Whit  are  the  nasal  fossae  or  nostrils  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  lining 
Membrane  of  the  nose  ? 

2!).   What  nerves  are  distributed  to  the  pituitary  membrane  1 

30.  How  is  the  sense  of  smells  perceived  1 

31  What  is  the  origin  of  the  humors  which  cover  the  pituitary  rnero 
brane?  What  disease  consists  of  an  inflamtnlion  of  this  membrane? 


82 SENSE  OF  HEARING. 

OF  THE  SENSE  OF  HEARING. 

32.  Hearing  is  the  sense  which  enables  us  to  perceive  sounds. 

33.  Sounds  are  produced  by  very  rapid  oscillatory  movements, 
which  are  manifested  in  sonorous  bodies,  and   which   are  called 
vibrations. 

34.  Sonorous  vibrations  are  communicated,  from  the  bodies  in 
which  they  are  produced,  to  the  surrounding  air,  and  are  thus  pro- 
pagated, little  by  little,  or  nearer  and  nearer,  like  the  undulation 
produced  on  the  surface  of  smooth  water  by  casting  a  stone  into  it. 

35  That  sounds  may  act  upon  our  senses,  the  oscillatory 
motion  must  reach  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus  of  hearing,  that 
it  may  agitate  the  extremity  of  the  nerve,  destined  to  transmit  the 
sensation  which  it  produces. 

36.  The  apparatus  of  hearing  is  called  the  ear ;  it  is  double  and 
is  symmetrical!}  placed  on  each  side  of  the  head.     Each  of  these 
apparatuses  is  lodged  in  the  interior  of  one  of  the  bones  of  the 
cranium,  called  the  temporal  bone.     That  part  of  the   temporal 
Done  which  contains  it,  is  extremely  hard,  and  for  this  reason  has 
received  the  name  of  [te.tronx  honp. 

37.  The  apparatus  of  hearing  is  very  complicated  in  its  struc- 
ture; it  may  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts  which    anato- 
mists have  called  the  external  ear,  tke  middle  ear  or  carity  of  the 
tympanum,  and  the  internal  ear,  or  labyrinth,  (Fig.  28.) 

28.  The  external  ear  is  composed  of  the  parilion  of  the  ear, 
and  the  auditory  canal,  (meatus  auditorius  externus.) 

39.  The  external  ear,  or  pavilion  of  the  ear,  (Fiu.  28,  />.)  is 
a  very  elastic  cartilaginous  plate  which  surrounds  the   entrance 
to  the  auditory  apparatus,  and  presents,  in  many  animals,  the 
form  of  a  trumpet,  which  serves  to  direct  sounds  towards  the  in- 
terior of  the  ear.    In  man,  th^  pavilion  of  the  ear  presents  many 
ridges  and  furrows,  or  anfractuosities,  arising  from  the  folds   of 
fhe  cartilaginous  plate  which  forms  it. 

40.  The  auricular  canal,  or  external  auditory  canal, — meatus 

32.  What  is  the  sense  of  hearing  ? 

33.  How  are  sounds  produced  ?     What  are  vibrations? 

34.  How  are  sonorous  vibrations  propagated  ? 

di>.  What  condition  is  necessary  to  produce  sensation  from  sounds? 

36.  What  is  the  name  of  the  apparatus  of  hearing  ?     Is  it  double  or  sin. 
gle7     Where  is  it  situated?     What  is  that  part  of  the  temporal  bone  called 
which  contains  ihe  apparatus  of  heating? 

37.  How  is  the  ear  divided  ? 

38.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  external  ear? 

39.  Describe  the  external  ear? 

40.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  external  auditory  canal?     What  is  tha 
membrana  tympani? 


SENSE  OF  HEARING. 


auditorius  extern  us,  (Fig.  28,  ca  )  is  a  species   of  tube  which 
Fiy.  28.       /rtx,  commences  at  the  bottom  of  a  widened  part 

ilion,  called  concha,  and   buries 
temporal  bone ;  it  is  gaping  at 
ts  external  extremity ;  but  ends 
internally, 
in  a  species 
of  membra* 
nous     parti- 
tion, named 
in  e  in  brana 


05  C 


na 


am 


/yrrif)  ani,  — 
drum  of  the 
ear,  — which 
separates  it 
from  the  mid- 
dle ear. 

41.    The 
middle    ear 
is  composed 
of  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum,  and  some  small  accessary  parts. 

42.  The  name  of  tympanum,  (Fig.  28,  cai.)  is  given  to  a  small 
cavity  of  irregular  form  which  is  hollowed  out  in  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  which  is  found  to  lie  between 
ihe  auditory  canal  and  the  internal  ear.     It   is   filled   with   air, 
which  gets  there  through  a  canal  called  the  Etistachian  tube,  which 
opens  in  the  superior  part  of  the  pharynx. 

43.  The  entrance  to  the  tympanum  is  closed  by  a  very  thin 
partition,  which  is  stretched  like  the  parchment  over  a  drum,  and 
hence  the  name,  tympanum.     This  membrane  serves  to  facilitate 
the  transmission  of  sounds  from  without  to  the  very   bottom  of 
the  auditory  apparatus,  and  also  to  moderate  the   intensity  of 

Explanation  of  Fig.  28 — A  vertical  section  of  the  organ  of  hearing. — p, 
pavilion  of  the  ear. — co.  concha. — ca.  auditory  canal. — t.  tympanum  behin  1 
which  is  seen  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum  (cai.) — te  the  Eustachian  tube. — 
flj.  foramen  nvale. — v  the  vestibule, — /.  the  cochlea. — osc.  the  semicircular 
canals — these  canals  and  the  cochlea  constitute  the  labyrinth  or  internal  ear. 
— na.  the  auditory  or  acoustic  nerve. — r.  the  petrous  bone,  that  is,  a  part  o. 
the  temporal  bone  which  derives  its  name  from  a  Greek  word  signifying, 
rocky,  which  has  been  applied  to  it  from  its  very  remarkable  hardness. — c. 
cells  in  the  temporal  bone. — far.  glenoid  cavity  for  the  articulation  of  the 
lower  jaw. — am.  mastoid  apophysisor  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone. 

41.  Of  what  does  the  middle  ear  consist? 

42.  What  is  the  tympanum  ?     Where  is  it  situated  ?     Through  what  pas. 
•age  does  air  enter  the  tympanum  ? 

43.  Of  what  use  is  the  membrana  tympani  ?      Does  it   modify  sound*  ' 


Bt  SENSE  OF  HEARING. 


sounds ;  for  it  is  so  arranged,  that  it  can  be  stretched  or  relaxed  ; 
and  when  stretched,  it  transmits  sounds  less  perfectly. 
Fiy.  29.       44.   We  also  remark  in  the  interior  of  the  tympanum, 
m      a  transverse  chain,  formed  of  four  small  bones,   named 
C\     on   account  of  their  shape,  (Fiy.  29.)  the  malleus,  (m.) 
-^F     (hammer,)  incus,  (en.)  (anvil)  lenticular  bone,  (I.)  or  os 
*      orbicular?,  and  stapes,  (*/.)  (stirrup.) 

45.  The  malleus  rests  upon  the  membrane  of  the 
tympanum,  and  affords  attachment  to  muscles,  which, 
by  contracting,  may  cause  it  to  press  more  or  less  strongly 
upon  the  membrane ;  in  this  way  it  is  stretched  or  re- 
laxed to  adapt  itself  to  the  intensity  of  the  sounds  by 
Ol  which  it  is  struck. 

/gv  st         46.  In  the  interior  of  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum, 
^"^       there  are  two  small  openings  which  are  closed  up  by 
membranes   stretched  over    them        p. 
like  that  of  the   tympanum ;  they  ^' 

lead  to  the  internal  ear.     One   of 
them,  called  the  feneslta  oralix,  or 
foramen  ovale,  is  in   contact   with 
the  base  of  the  stapes;  the   other,  m 
called  the  fenestra  rotunda,  or  foi- 

amen  rotundvm,  is  situated  a  little  '""", ''f^HHF        et 

lower  down.     The  cavity   of  the 
tympanum  also  communicates  with  a  great  number  of  cells  which 
are  in  the  substance  of  the  petrous  bone. 

47.  The  internal  ear  is  composed  of  three  parts,  namely,   the 
vestibule,  the  semi-circular  canals,  and  the  cochlea,  (Fiy.  28.) 
These  organs  are  tilled  with  a  watery  liquid,  in  which  the  fila« 
merits  of  the  acoustic  nerve  terminate. 

48.  The   vestibule,   and    the  acoustic  nerves    constitute   the 
essential  part  of  the  auditory  apparatus ;  the  other   parts   which 
we  have  just  enumerated  are  destined  to  perfect  this   apparatus, 
and  for  the  most  part,  may  be  destroyed,  even  in  man,    without 

Explanation  of  Fig.  30. — The  tympanum  with  the  bones  of  the  ear,-—  L 
the  tympanum, — ma.  the  maleus  or  hammer, — m,  the  handle  of  the  maleus, 
which  rests  upon  the  tympanum, — mm.  muscles  of  the  maleus, — en.  the 
incus,  01  anvil, — et.  the  stapes  or  stirrup, — me.  muscles  of  the  stapes. 

44.  What  is  found  in  the  interior  of  the  tympanum  ? 

45.  What  bone  gives  attachment  to  the  small  muscles  which  act   on   the 
membrane  of  the  tympanum  / 

46.  In  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum  are    found    two  small    openings  ;  to 
wl.at  part  do  they  lead  *     VVhich  foramen  has  the  stapes  bone  attached  to 
it?    With  what  other  parts  does  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum  communicate? 

47.  Of  what  parts  is  the  internal  ear    composed?     With    what  is    thes« 
organs  filled,  and  what  terminates  in  them  ? 

48.  What  essentially  constitutes  the  auditory  apparatus? 


SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


deafness  being  the  necessary  consequence  of  their  loss;  they  are 
absent  in  a  great  many  animals. 

49.  For  example,  birds  have  not  the  pavilion  of  the  ear;  iep- 
tiles  are  destitute  of  the  pavilion,  and  the  auditory  canal ;  in  fish 
all  parts  of  the  middle  ear,  or  tympanum,  are  wanting,  and  in 
other  animals,  such  as  the  craw-fish,  the  apparatus  of  hearing 
consists  only  of  a  small  vesicle  similar  to  the  vestibule. 


LESSOR    IX. 

FUNCTIONS  OP  RELATFOS. — Ssnse  of  sight — Light — Apparatus 
of  vision —  Eye-brows — Eye-lids — Lachrymal  apparatus —  Mus- 
cles of  the  eye — Structure  of  the  eye — Use  of  different  parts  oj 
the  eye —  Voice. 

OF  THE  SIGHT. 

1.  Sight  is  the  sense  by  which  we  perceive  the  form,  colour 
volume,  and  position  of  objects  that  surround  us. 

2.  This  sense,  which  Buffbn  called  "  distant  touch,"  is   exer- 
cised at  a  distance,  through  the  medium  of  light. 

3  To  comprehend  the  mechanism  of  sight,  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  know  the  structure  of  the  eye ;  we  must  also  be  familiar  with 
some  of  the  properties  of  light,  the  study  of  which  subject  be- 
longs to  that  branch  of  science  called  Optics. 

4.  Light  is  a  fluid  which  tills  space  and   illuminates  the  earth. 
It  emanates  from  luminous  bodies,  such  as  the  sun,  the  fixed  stars, 
and  substances  in  combustion,  and  diffuses  itself  afar  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity. 

5.  In    proportion  as  the  rays   become  distant  from  the  body 
from  which  they  emanate,  they  diverge  one  from  the  other,  and 
for  this  reason  bodies  are  better  lighted,  the  nearer  they  are   to 
the  illuminating  body. 

6.  When  light  meets  with  a  body,  it  either  passes  through  it, 
or  is  reflected  from  it,  or  it  may  be  absorbed. 

7.  Those  bodies  which  permit  light  to  pass  through  them   are 
called  transparent ;  those  which  oppose  its  passage,  are   called 
opaque,. 

49.  Is  the  organ  of  hearing  the  same  in  all  its  parts  in  all  animals  ? 

1.  What  is  sight? 

2.  By  what  me;ins  is  the  sense  of  sight  exercised  ? 

3.  Is  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  eye  sufficient,  in  itself  to  teacfa 
Us  the  mechanism  of  sight  ? 

4.  What  is  light?     What  are  the  sources  of  light? 

5.  Why  are  bodies  better  lighted  when  near  the  illuminating  body'/ 
G.   When  li^hl  meets  with  a  body,  what  takes  place  / 

1    When  are  bodies  transparent?     When  are  bodies 


or 


B(5  SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


S.  In  order  to  see  an  object,  the  rays  of  light  which  emanate 
from  it,  or  which  are  reflected  by  it,  must  reach  to  the  bottom  of 
the  eye.  For  this  reason,  an  opaque  body  placed  between  the 
eye,  and  the  object  at  which  we  look,  renders  the  latter  invisible. 

9.  The  surfaces  of  opaque  bodies  do  not  always  reflect   back 
the  light  the  same  as  they  receive  it.     As  we  have  said,  there  are 
some   which  absorb  all  the  rays;  such  bodies  are  called  Wack. 
Bodies  that  reflect  all  the  rays,  or  nearly  all,  are  white,  but  tnose 
which  decompose  them,  are  coloured 

10.  Colour  is  not  inherent  in  bodies  ;  it  depends  upon  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  decompose  the  light,  and  the  kind  of  luminous 
ray  that  the  coloured  body  can  reflect.     Each  ordinary    ray  of 
light,  though  it  appears  colourless  to  us,  is  composed  of  seven  dif- 
ferently coloured  rays:  there  is  a  very  simple  mode  of  being  con- 
vinced of  this  fact;  if  we  receive  a   bundle   of  luminous  rays, 
which  have  passed  through  a  glass  prism,  upon  a  sheet  of  paper, 
instead  of  producing  a  white  image,  it  will  form  an  oblong  image, 
in  which  we  distinguish  the  following  seven   colours,   namely  : 
Red,  Orange,  Yellow,  Green,  Blue,  Indigo.  Violet      Now,  objects 
appear  to  us  white,  when  they  reflect  the  light,  without  decompo- 
sing it,  and  coloured  in  this  or  that  manner,  when  they   decom- 
pose it  like  the  prism,  and  absorb  some  rays  and  reflect  others. 

11.  In  passing  through  transparent  bodies,  rays  of  light  some- 
times continue  to  follow  their  primitive  direction :  but  on  other 
occasions,  they  change  their  direction,  and  approach  towards,  or 
diverge  from  each  other.     For  example,  when  a  straight  stick  is 
plunged,  half  of  its  length,  obliquely  into  water,  it  seems  as  if  it  were 
broken ;  and  it  is  by  acting  in  this  way  upon  light,  that  the  con- 
cave or  convex   glasses  of  spectacles,  enlarge  or  diminish  the 
images  of  bodies.     This  deviation  of  light  is  called  re.frticti»n. 

12.  In  order  to  see  a  body,  the  rays  of  light  which  part  from 
it,  must  reach  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  and  there  paint  an  image  of 
the  object;  the  impression  thus  produced,  is  received  by  a  par- 
ticular nerve,  and  by  it  transmitted  to  the  brain  which   receives 
the  sensation. 

13.  The  apparatus  of  sight  is  composed:   1st.  of  the  organ  of 
vision,  which  consists  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  and  its  nerve;  2nd. 

8.  What  ic«  necessary  to  cnnble  us  to  perceive  «n  object  ? 

9.  Do  all  bodies  reflect  light  ?    What  is  the  colour  of  those  bodies  whioh 
•bsorb  all  the  rays  ?  Whut  is  the  colour  of  those  bodies  which  reflect  all  the 
rays  ?  What  is  the  colour  of  (hose  bodies  which  refract  the  rays? 

10.  Upon  what  does  the  colour  of  bodies  depend? 
11     What  is  refraction? 

12.  In  what  manner  is  the  image  of  an  object  conveyed  to  the  brain  ? 

13.  Of  what  parts  is  the  apparatus  of  sight  composed  ? 


SENSE  OF  SIGHT.  87 


of  the  accessory  organs  of  vision,  that  is,  of  the  protectors  and 
movers  of  the  eye. 

14.  The  ylobc.  of  the  eye,  (Fig.  31.) 
is   a  hollow    ball,    filled    with   certain 
humors,  and  so  arranged  that  the  rays 
of  light  may  penetrate  it,    and    collect 
upon    the    nerve   which   occupies   its 
bottom. 

15.  The  sides  of  this  globe  are  com- 
posed of  a  very  solid  membrane  which 
consists  of  two  parts;  one,  situated  in 
front,  and  named  transparent  cornea  ; 
the  other,  occupying  the  sides  and  bot- 
tom, and  called  sclerotica,  (Fi<j.  31.; 

16.  The  sdttrntica  surrounds  the  eye  in  all  parts,   except   in 
front;  it  is  white,  and  entirely  opaque :  it  is  this  part   which    is 
vulgarly  called  the  white  of  tk<>  eye. 

17  The  tran&pnri'itt  cornea  is,  on  the  contrary,  diaphanous; 
it  is  framed  into  a  great  hole  in  the  sclerotica,  and  resembles  a 
somewhat  arched  watch-glass,  set  into  a  hollow  white  ball. 

18.  A  short  distance  behind  the  transparent  cornea,  is  found  a 
sort  of  vertical  partition,  named   iris,  from   its   varied   colours, 
which  are  seen  through   the  cornea.     Its  centre  is  pierced    by 
an  onening  which  is  susceptible  of  enlargement  and  diminution ; 
it  is  called  the  pupil. 

19.  The  space  comprised  between  the  cornea  and  the   iris,  is 
called  the  anterior  cliambrr  of  the  fife,  which  is  tilled  with  a  trans- 
parent liquid  called  the  <u/in'ous  humor. 

20.  Behind  the  pupil  we  find  the  chrystnl/iue  lens,  which  is  a 
transparent  lens  of  a  globular  form,  and  behind  the  r.hrystalline 
we  find  a  diaphanous  mass  soft  as  jelly,  which  is  called  vitreous 
liinnnr,  and  which  fills  all  the  interior  of  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

Explanation  of  Fi«.  '.II. — An  open  eye, — s.  the  sclerotica,  one  part  ot 
which  is  luined  back,-—  ch.  the  choroid, — r  the  retina, — cl.  the  transparent 
cornea,— en.  the  anterior  chamber, — i.  fhe  irus,  the  centre  of  which  is  pierced 
by  the  pupil, — cr.  the  cry*tu;ine  lens. — v.  the  vitreous  humor, — n.  the  optic 
nerve. 

14.  What  is  the  glohe  of  the  rye  ? 

15.  Of  vv  sat  parts  do  the  sides  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  consist? 

16.  What  is  the  i-clerotica  ? 

17.  What  is  the  transparent  cornea? 

3.   What  is  the  ins?   Why  is  it  so  called?  What  is  the  pupil  ? 
)    What  is  that  space  c.lled  which  is  comprised  between  the  cornea  and 
iris  ?     What  does  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye  contain  ? 

20.  What  do  we  find  behind  the  pupil  ?    What  is  the  form  of  the  chryetal 
line  lens?     What  fills  the  interior  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  ? 

12 


88  SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


•21.  The  optic  ww,  which  comes  from  the  brain,  enters  the 
globe  of  the  eye  through  the  posterior  part  of  the  sclerotica,  and 
then  expands  itself  out  into  a  soft  whitish  membrane,  called  re- 
tina, which  envelops  the  hinder  p  irt  of  the  vitreous  humor. 
Between  the  retina  and  the  internal  face  of  the  sclerotica,  we  find 
another  membrane,  generally  colored  black,  called  the  c//oro///, 
(tunica  rliomidrx)  It  is  this  coat  which  is  seen  through  the  retina 
and  the  humors  of  the  eye  when  we  look  towards  the  bottom  o 
the  organ,  and  which  gives  to  the  pupil  the  appearance  of  being 
a  black  spot  instead  of  a  hole. 

Such  a°e  the  different  parts  which  compose  the  globe  of  the 
eye.  Let  us  pass  to  the  consideration  of  vision. 

22.  The  rays  of  light  which  leave  an  object  at  which  we  look, 
penetrate  to  the  retina  and  there  form  a  small  but  very  clear 
image  of  that  object. 

23.  The  manner  in  which  the  light  acts  in  the  interior  of  the 
eye,  is  the  same  as  in  the  optical  instrument  called  a  camera  ob- 
scura.     The  different  transparent  parts  through   which  the  lumi- 
nous rays  pass  to  get  from  the  cornea  to  the  retina,  have  the  effect 
of  collecting  the  rays  and  concentrating  them  upon   the  retina. 
It  is  the  chrystalline  lens  especially  that  determines  this  concentra- 
tion of  light,  and  upon  this  phenomenon  depends  the  formation  of 
images  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye. 

24.  When  the  eye  concentrates  the  light  with  too  much  force 
we  cannot  see  distinctly,  except  at  a  very  short  distance  ;  to  this 
infirmity  is  applied  the  term  myopia,  or  short  siylitcdness ;  when, 
on  the  contrary,  the  luminous  rays  are  not  sufficiently  concentra- 
ted in   their  passage  through  the  eye,  only  distant  objects  are 
distinctly  seen,  and  this  defect  is  called  presbyopia  or  long-sight- 
edness ;  this  feebleness  in  the  refracting  power  of  the  eye,  is  a 
consequence   of  old  age,  and  is  remedied  by   wearing   convex 
glasses  before  the  eyes.     To  give  short-sighted  people  a  longer 
vision,  we  must,  on  the  contrary,  employ  spectacles  with  concave 
glasses  which  scatter  the  luminous  rays,  and  thus  counterbalance 
the  too  strong  refracting  f>rce  of  the  eye. 

21.  Where  does  the  optic  nerve  enter  the  eye?  What  is  the  retina  ?  What 
IK  fnund  between  the  retina  and  internal  face  of  the  sclerotica  .       Why  does 
the  pupil  se  m  to  be  a  black  spot  instead  of  a  h<  le  ? 

22.  »  n  what  part  of  the  eye  are  the  imag  s  of  objerts  formed  ? 

23.  In  what  manner  doe<  light  act  in  the  interior  of  the  eye?  What  effect 
have  the   different  p  rts  of  the  interior  of  the  ey  upon  the  light  passing 
from  the  cornea  to  the  retina?  What  part  especially  determines  the  concen- 
tration of  light  in  the  eye  ? 

24.  What  is  the  consequence  of  a  too  great  concentration  of  light  by  the 
interior  parts  of  the  t  ye  ?  -What  is  the  cause  of  long  sightedriess  ?     What 
kind  ol  spectacles  are  required  for  short-sighted  people? 


SENSE  OF  SIGEIT.  8'j 


25.  The  iris  is  contractile,  and  its  principal  use  is  to  regulate 
the  quantity  of  light  which  should  penetrate  to  the  bottom  of  the 
eye ;  when  the  light  is  too  vivid,  it  contracts,  and  consequently 
diminishes  the  pupil,  through  which  the  rays  must  pass  to  reaoh 
the  retina;  in  the  dark  on  the  contrary  the  pupil  is  enlarged. 

26  Thechoroid  membrane,  which  lines  the  internal  face  of  the 
globe  of  the  eye,  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  black  varnish,  which 
bsorbs  all  the  luminous  rays,  not  necessary  for  vision. 

27.  Images  painted,  if  we  may  use  this  term,  upon  the  retina, 
are  transmitted  to  the  brain  through   the  medium  of  the  optic 
nerve. 

28.  The  accessary  parts  of  the  apparatus  of  vision  are  of  two 
kinds;  the  one  is  designed  to  protect  the  globe  or  ball  of  the  eye, 
the  oiher  to  move  it  and  give  the  required  direction   to  fulfil  its 
functions  in  the  best  manner. 

29  The  protecting  organs  of  the  eye  are:  1st,  the  orbit,  2nd, 
the  eye-lids,  3rd.  the  lachrymal  apparatus  4th,  the  eye-brows. 

30.  The  n>'lrit  is  a  great  bony  cavity,  hollowed  out  in  the  face 
on  each  side  of  the  nose.     It  has  the  form  of  a  cone,  the  base  of 
which  is  open  and  'directed  forward;    its   parietes  are  formed, 
above  by  the  frontal  bone ;  below,  by  the  superior  maxillary  bone ; 
externally,  or  outwardly,  by  the  malar  or  cheek  bone,  and  inter- 
nally by  the  bones  which  belong  partly  to  the  nose.     The  bottom 
of  the  orbit  is  pierced  by  a  large  hole,  which  communicates  with 
the  cranium,  and  gives  passage  to  the  optic  nerve. 

31.  The  ball  of  the  eye  is  set  into  this  cavity  and  rests  upon  a 
sort  of  cushion  formed  of  fat.     It  is  protected  in  the  same  way 
on  all  sides  except  in  front,  and  there  we  find  the  eye-lids. 

32.  The  eye-li.ls  are  moveable  curtains,  stretched  in  front  of 
the  ball  of  the  eye.     On  the  outside  they  are  formed  of  the  skin ; 
internally  they  are  lined  by  a  smooth  membrane  which  is  reflected 
over  the  front  of  the  eye  upon  the  sclerotica,  and  this  membrane 
is  called  the  membronn   conjunctiva  ;  between  these  two  mem- 
branes—the conjunctiva,  and  the  skin — there  is  placed  a  thin  plate 
of  fibrous  and  resisting  substance,  called  tarsus  or  palpebral  car- 

ilage,  as  well  as  muscles  which  serve  to  move  these  organs.     In 

25.  What  is  the  action  of  the  iris? 

26.  What  is  the  use  of  the  black  covering1  of  the  choroid  coat? 

27.  How  are  images  upon  the  retina  transmitted  to  the  brain? 

28.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  accessary  parts  of  the  apparatus  of  vision' 
2'D.  What  are  the  protecting  organs  of  the  ^ye  ? 

30.  What  is  the  orbit  ? 

31.  Upon  what  does  the  ball  of  the  eye  rest? 

32.  What  are  the  eye  lids?     Of  what  do  they  consist?     What  is  then 
number? 

3 


PO  SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


man  there  are  two  eye-lids,  one  superior,  and  the  other  inferior. 
The  superior  eye-lid  is  larger  than  the  inferior 

33.  Each  eye-lid  has  two  edges  or  borders;  one  is  continuous 
with  the  skin,  the  other  is  free.     The  free  border  of  the  eye  lids, 
is  bristled  with  delicate  hairs,  called  cilia,   or  eye-lashes.     The 
use  of  the  cilia  is  to  form  a  kind  of  little  grating  in  front  of  the 
eye,  to  arrest  foreign  bodies,  the  presence  of  which  would  inter- 
fere with  the  exercise  of  vision. 

34.  The  eye-lids  perform  the  double  office   of  protecting   the 
ball  of  the  eye,  by  closing  in  front  of  it,  and  of  rendering  it  inac- 
cessible to  luminous  rays,  the  brillrancy  of  which  might   disturb 
sleep.     Besides,   the   eye-lids   by   their  alternate  movement   ot 
depression  and  elevation,  spread  over  the  front  of  the   globe    of 
the  eye,  the  tears,  an  aqueous  liquid,  which  prevents  the  cornea 
from  drying,  and  also  favours  the  motion  of  the  eye-lids. 

35.  The  lachrymal  apparatus,  which  secretes  the  tears  is  com- 
posed of  several  organs,  some  of  which  are  destined  to  form  this 
liquid,  and  pour  it  over  the  front  of  the  eye;  and  as  the  presence 
of  the  tears,  if  too  long  continued,  would  become  troublesome, 
other  organs  convey  them  from  the  eye.     The  first  organs,  are  : 

Fio.  32.  26.    1st.  The  lachrymal  ylaiid,  a  small  body, 

the  size  of  an  almond,  placed  at  the  exterior 
anc^  suPeri°r  Part  °f  tne  globe  of  the  eye,  be- 
tween  it  and  the  orbitary  cavity,  (fig.  32,  gl.)i 
it  serves  to  secrete  the  tears.  2nd.  Several 
'en  smau  canals  which  arise  in  this  gland,  and  open 
upon  the  internal  face  of  the  adhering;  border  of 
the  upper  eye-lid,  where  they  constantly  pour  upon  the  conjunc- 
tiva the  lachrymal  fluid,  or  tears. 

37.  The  organs  destined  to  carry  away  those  tears  which  have 
been  spread  over  the  front  of  the  eye,  and  to  convey  them  into 
the  nasal  fossae,  or  nostrils,  are  two  little  canals  which  open  upon 
the  free  border  of  the  eye-lids,  near  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye, 
by  two  small  orifices  called  the  lachrymal  points, — puncta  lachry- 

Explanation  of  Fig.  32. — The  eye  seen  in  front, — p.  the  pupil,  and  i.  the 
iris,  seen  through  the  transparent  cornea, — gl.  the  lachrymal  gland, — pi.  the 
lachrymal  points  or  puncta  lachrymalia, — en.  nasal  canal. 

33.  What  is  the  use  of  the  eye  lashes  ? 

34.  What  is  the  use  of  the  eye  lids? 

35.  What  is  the  use  of  the  lachrymal  apparatus  ? 

36.  Of  what  use  is  the  lachrymal  gland  ?     How  do  th*  tears  pass  from 
Ihis  gland? 

37  What  are  the  puncta  lachrymalia  ?  What  becomes  of  the  tears  after 
they  have  moistened  the  ball  of  the  eye  ?  What  is  the  nasal  canal  ?  Explain 
the  phenomenon  of  crying  ? 


SENSE  OF  SIGHT. 


malia,  {Fig  32.)  Each)  of  these  points,  (which  are  placed  one 
above,  and  the  other  below,)  communicate  with  a  little  curved 
canal,  which  runs  inwards,  and  opens  into  a  vertical  conduit,  that 
is  larger  in  size,  called  the  nasal  canal,  and  which  empties  into  the 
nasal  fossae.  The  function  of  these  lachrymal  pnucta  is  to  pump  up 
and  receive  the  tears  as  fast  as  they  are  poured  over  the  eye:  in 
this  way  the  fluid  is  carried  off  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  Under  par- 
ticular circumstances,  the  equilibrium  between  these  two  pheno- 
mena is  destroyed  ;  and  either  that  the  tears  are  secreted  in  too 
large  a  quantity,  or  the  lachyrymal  puncta  do  not  pump  them  off 
with  proportioned  activity,  or  they  are  obstructed  in  their  passage 
through  the  lachrymal  ducts  and  nasal  canal,  this  fluid  overruns 
the  eye-lids  and  falls  in  considerable  quantity  along  the  cheeks. 

38.  The  eye-brow*,  which  form  a  ridge  above  the  orbit  and  are 
garnished  with  hairs,  also  belong  to  the  protecting  organs  of  the 
eye,  but  their  use  is  less  important  than  that  of  those  organs  of 
which  we  have  just  spoken.     They  assist  in  shading  the    eyes 
wlien  exposed  to  strong  light. 

39.  The  niofor  organs  of  the  eye  Fig.  33. 
consist  of  six  muscles  which  are 

fixed,  by  their  anterior  extremities 
into  the  sclerotica,  and  by  their 
posterior  extremities  to  the  bottom 
of  the  orbit,  ( Fig.  33,  //*.)  By  con- 
tracting they  direct  the  ocular 
£lobe,  to  the  side  where  their  mus- 
cular tibres  are  placed. 

40.  The  apparatus  of  vision  pre- 

sents  nearly  the  same  structure  in  the  mammalia,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  but  in  insects,  the  organization  of  the  eyes  is  very 
different,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  the  history  of  these 
animals. 

41.  Through  the  medium  of  the  senses  we  take  cognizance  of 
all  that  surrounds  us ;  but  our  relations  with  the  external  world 

Explanation  of  Fig.  33.— The  orbit,  opened  to  show  the  position  of  the  eye 
in  this  cavity,  and  the  musc'e*  which  move  it,— cr.the  cranium,— wo.  the 
orbitary  arch,— po.  the  floor  of  the  orbit,—  p.  and  pi.  the  upper  and  lower 
eye-lids,— s.  the  globe  of  the  eye,— c.  the  conjunctiva,— n.  the  optic  nerve,— 
m.  m.  two  muscles  of  the  eye, — ml.  a  third  muscle  cut  so  as  to  afford  a  view 
of  the  optic  nerve. 

38.  What  are  the  eye  brows? 

39.  What  are  the  motor  organs  of  the  eye  ? 

40.  Is  the  organ  of  vision  the  same  in  all  animals 

,11  1171 


.~.   .„  v»<  uigini  ui   vision  me  same  in  an  animals  ' 

41.  What  powers  are  requisite   besides  the  senses,  to  complete  OUT    rela 

IMS      With    thu    r>v*»r>->nl     ,,,~.1,>1 


•ions  with  the  external  world? 


VOICE. 


would  he  vory  imperfect  if  we  could  not  act  upon  these  bodies, 
change  place  and  express  what  we  feel.  Indeed,  we  do  possess 
this  power,  which  is  the  result  of  the  faculty  of  producing  sounds, 
and  of  the  faculty  of  executing  motion. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35. 


br 


OF  THE  VOICE. 

42.  Voice  consists  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  particular  sound, 
by   the   aid   of  the   air   which 
escapes  from  the  lungs.  A  great 
number  of  organs  take  part  in 
the  performance  of  this    func- 
tion ;    but  that    one    which    is 
especially  its  seit,  is  the  larynx, 
a    sort   of   cartilaginous    tube, 

which,  at  its  superior  extremity,  opens  into  the 
pharynx  by  an  opening  named  glottis,  and  which, 
by  its  inferior  opening  communicates  with  the 
windpipe,  which  is,  in  a  manner,  only  a  prolonga- 
tion of  it.  (Fig.  34,  and  35.) 

43.  The  larynx  is  essentially  the  organ  which 
produces  the  voice,  and  it  is  the  passage  of  ait 

through  its  interior  which  occasions  the  sounds  there  formed.  To 
deprive  an  animal  of  this  faculty,  it  is  only  necessary  to  open  the 
windpipe,  for  then  the  air  finding  an  exit  through  the  accidental 
opening,  no  longer  passes  through  the  larynx,  nor  is  it  subjected  P 
to  the  vibrations  which  would  have  been  imparted  by  this  organ. 
44.  The  larynx,  which  is  composed  of  several  cartilaginous 
plates,  forming  in  front,  what  is  vulgarly  called,  ManC*  apple, 
is  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane,  which  forms,  near  its  middle, 
two  broad  lateral  folds,  directed  from  the  front  backwards,  and 
arranged  very  much  like  the  edges  of  a  buttonhole.  These  folds 
are  called  the  vocal  curds,  or  inferior  ligaments  of  the  gbttit;  by 
the  aid  of  a  little  muscle,  situate  in  their  folds,  the  slit,  or  opening 

Explanation  of  Fig.  34. — The  l;irynx  seen  in  front.  The  internal  line  in- 
dicates the  shape  of  the  internal  surface  of  this  organ, — h.  the  hyoid  bone, — 
/.  the  larynx, — t.  the  trachea, — 6r,  bronchiae, — ».  ventricles  of  the  glottis, — 
c.  vocal  cords. 

Explanation  of  Fig-  35. — The  larynx  open,  seen  fioTi  one  side, — c.  the 
rpiglottis, — c.  one  of  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx, — cv.  one  of  the  vocal  cords, 
— t.  the  trachea. 


42.  What  is  voice?  Is  voice  produced  by  the  function  of  a  single  organ  ? 

43.  What  is  the  larynx  ?  How  may  it  be  proved  that  the  larynx  is  essen- 
tially the  organ  of  voice? 

44.  What  is  meant  by  the  vocal  cords? 


APPARATUS  OF  MOTION. 


of  the  glottis,  which  is  between  them,  can  be  narrowed  or  enlarged. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  air  expelled  from  the  lungs, 
passes  freely  through  the  larynx,  and  produces  no  sound  ;  but 
when  the  opening  of  the  glottis  is  narrowed,  by  the  contraction  of 
the  muscles  of  this  organ,  and  the  passage  of  the  air,  becomes 
more  rapid,  the  voice  is  heard. 

45.  Words  are  produced  by  the  modifications  which  the  column 
of  air  receives  in  the  interior  of  the  mouth,  by  the  combined 
action  of  the  palate,  the  cheeks,  the  tongue,  and  lips. 


LESSON   X. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  RELATION. — Apparatus  of  motion — The  skele- 
ton—  Structure  of hones;  their  composition — Enumeration  of  the 
bones — Articulations — Muscles — Attitudes — Locomotion. 

MOTION. 

1.  The  organs  of  motion  are  divided  into    two  classes:   1st. 
Those  which  act  and  produce  the  motive  force:    2nd.   Those  to 
which  the  action  is  communicated  ;  or,  in  other  words,  they  are 
divided  into  the  active  and  passive  organs  of  locomotion. 

2.  The  first  are  the  muscles  ;  the  second  are  the  bones  or  those 
parts  which  hold  their  place. 

OF  THE  OSSEOUS  SYSTEM. 

3.  Man,  and  all  the  other  mammalia,  as  well  as  birds,  reptiles 
and  fishes,  have  in  their  structure,  solid  parts  which   are   called 
hones,  and  the  union  of  these  bones,  one  with  the  other,   consti- 
tutes the  Skeleton.    ( page  97,  fig.  37.) 

4.  The  skeleton  is  a  kind  of  frame  which  gives  firmness  to  the 
body,  in  a  considerable  degree,  determines  its  dimensions  and  its 
form,  serves  to  protect  the  organs  which  are  most  important  to 
life,   and   furnishes  the  passive  instruments  of  motion    to  the 
function  of  locomotion. 

OF  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  BONES. 

5.  The  bones  are  formed  of  a  species  of  cartilage,  composed  of 
gelatine,  (the  substance  which   constitutes  strong  glue,)  all  the 

45.  How  are  words  produced  ? 

1.  How  are  the  organs  of  motion  divided  ? 

2.  Which  are  the  active  organs  of  motion  ?     Which   are    the 
organs  of  motion? 

3.  What  are  bones?     What  do  they  constitute? 

4.  What  is  the  skeleton  ?     What  are  its  uses  ? 

5.  Of  what  are  the  bones  composed? 

8» 


94  BONES. 


laminae  and  all  the  fibres  of  which  are  incrusted  with  a  strong 
matter  composed  of  lime  united  to  particular  acids,  (phosphoric 
acid,  &c.)  When  bone  is  burned, the  stony  matter  remains  alone, 
and  is  reduced  to  powder  by  slight  friction,  and  when  bone  is 
steeped  in  a  particular  liquid,  which  has  the  property  of  dissol- 
ving this  stony  matter,  (hydrochloric  acid,)  it  is  reduced  to  the 
state  of  a  flexible  cartilage 

6  In  infancy  bone  is  at  first  cartilaginous,  and  before  ossifica 
tion  is  complete,  each  one  is  formed  of  several  distinct  pieces, 
which  run  together,  as  it  were,  at  a  later  period 

7.  The  bones  that  constitute  the  skeleton  are  united  one  to 
the  other  by  arlictilatiotts  or  joints,  which   change  their  name 
according  to  their  form. 

8.  If  the  articulation  that  unites  two  bones  permits  them  to 
move,  one  on  the  other,  it  is  called  a  moreablc  articulation. 

9.  If  on  the  contrary,  the  articulation  is  merely  to  secure  the 
solidity  and  firmness  of  the  bones,  it  is  called  immoveable. 

10.  The  more  moveable  an  articulation,  the  less  solid  it  is,  and 
vice  versa  ;    the  more  solid,  the  less  mobility  it  possesses. 

11.  The  immoveable   articulations   take   place    through   the 
medium  of  asperities   which  dove-tail    together ;   this  mode  of 
union  is  called  a  suture. 

Ftg.  36.  12.  The  articular  surface  of  the  move- 

a          ac       cl       able  Dones>  (My-  36.)  is  covered  with 
',    an  elastic  substance   which  is  capable 
of  bearing  the  strongest  pressure,  and 
•  which  deadens  the  shocks  they  receive ; 
this  substance  is  called  cartilage.     The 
articulations   are  also  supplied   with   a 
viscous   fluid  called  synovia,    designed 

Explanutionof  Fip.  36. — The  articulation  (joint)  of  the  shoulder,  show- 
ing how  the  moveable  bones  are  attached  to  each  other, — o.  the  scapula. — 
t.  the  head  of  the  humerus, — c.  the  capsule  of  the  articulation  opened, — g. 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula, — a.  the  acromion  process  of  the  scapula,  articu- 
lating (  jointing  with  the  clavicle,  (cl.) — ac.  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula, 
— -/.  ligament  extending  from  this  process  to  the  clavicle. 

6.  What  is  the  condition  of  bone  in  infancy  ? 

7.  How  are  bone"  joined  together  ? 

8.  What  is  a  moveahle  articulation  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  an  immoveable  articulation? 

10.  What  kind  of  articulation  is  most  solid  ? 

11.  What  is  a  suture? 

12.  How  are  the  articulating  surfaces  of  moveable  bones   protected    from 
the  effects  of  friction  ?     What  is  the  use  of  synovia  ? 


BONES.  95 


to  favor  the  sliding  of  the  articular  surfaces  upon  each  other- 
The  extremities  of  the  bones  that  concur  to  form  an  articulation 
correspond  by  having  their  respective  configurations  reciprocal ; 
they  are,  in  general,  one  convex,  the  other  concave 

13.  The  means  of  union  between  bones   is  by  fibrous  parts 
which  bear  the  name  of  ligaments.     These  are  very  strong  bands 
or  species  of  cords  which  surround  the  articulation  or  joint,  hold- 
ing together  the  two  bones  by  their  extremities. 

14.  The  articulations  present  a  great  variety  in  the  motions  of 
which  they  are  susceptible. 

15.  The  bones  are  also  very  different  in  their   forms,  and    on 
account  of  this  circumstance  they  are  divided  into  long,  short 
and  flat  bones. 

16.  The  Jong  bones  are  generally  cylindrical,  of  considerable 
size,  and  in  the  interior,  hollowed  into  a  canal  filled    with  a 
fatty  matter   called  tnnrroir;  this  form,   without   injuring   their 
solidity,  diminishes  their  weight.     At  their  extremities  these  bones 
are  enlarged  to  afford  a  broader  surface  for  the  articulation. 

17.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that,  if  the  bones   were  in   contact 
by  small  surfaces,  their  union   would  have   been  less  solid,  they 
would  have  afforded  only  an  uncertain  and  insecure  motion,  and 
their  derangement  would  have  been  as  common  as  it  is  now  rare. 

18.  About  their  middle,  the  long  bones  are  formed   almost  en- 
tirely of  very  compact  substance  ;  but  at  their  swollen  extremi- 
ties the^y  are  chiefly  composed  of  a  spongy  substance,  which  is 
not  so  heavy.     It  is  these  bones  that  form  the  solid  frame  work 
of  the  limbs. 

19.  Neither  the  short  nor  the  flat  bones  have  any  cavity  in 
the  interior. 

20.  The  short  bones  are  formed  almost  entirely  of  spongy  sub- 
stance, which  lessens  their  weight  without  diminishing  their  vol- 
ume     The  chief  use  of  the  flat  bones  is  to  form  the  parietes  of 
cavities  which  afford  protection  to  internal  organs  :  they  are  not 
however,  insusceptible  of  motion  ;  they  furnish  points  of  attach- 
ment to  many  muscles. 

13.  What  a>-e  ligaments? 

14.  Do  the  articulations  pernvt  of  a  variety  of  motions? 
1  >.  How  are  the  bones  divided  ? 

16.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  long  bones?  Where  is  the  mar. 
row  found? 

17.  VVhy  are  the  long  bones  enlarged  at  their  extremities  ? 

18.  In  what  res  ect  do  the  extremities  and  middle  of  the  long    bones 
differ  in  structure  ? 

1!).  Have  the  short  and  the  flat  bones  any  internal  cavities? 
20.  What  is  the  character  of  the  short  bones? 

K 


96  THE  SKELETON. 


21.  We  remark  inequalities  upon  the  surfaces  of  bones,  which 
afford  points  of  attachment  for  muscles;  they  often  present  for 
tho  same  purpose,  as  well  as  for  the  ligaments  of  the  joints, 
salient  prolongations  which  are  named  afjophyses  or  processes. 

OF  THE  SKELETON. 

2->.  The  skeleton  is  a  species  of  frame  formed  by  the  union  c4 
he  different  bones  of  the  body.     A  great  many  animals  are  with- 
out it,  but  it  exists  in  the  mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes. 
To  study  it  we  will  select  the  skeleton  of  man  (page  97/2g-.37.) 

23.  The  skeleton,  like  the  body,  is  divided  into  head,  trunk, 
and  extremities. 

24.  The  heal  is  placed  at  the  superior  extremity  of  the  body, 
and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  cranium  and  face. 

25.  The  fare  presents  five  great  cavities  destined  to  lodge  the 
organs  of  sight,  of  smell,  and  of  taste  :  these  cavities  are  the  two 
orbits  (  for  ike  eyes)  the  two  nasal  fossae  and  the  mouth. 

26.  A  great  number  of  bones  concur  to  form  the  face  :  the 
principal  ones  are: 

1st.  The  two  -superior  maxillary  bones,  which  constitute  near- 
ly the  whole  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  rise  at  the  sides  of  the  nose 
to  join  the  frontal  bone. 

2nd.  The  malar  or  cheek  bones,  which  form  the  cheeks  in  part, 
and  extend  from  the  superior  maxillary  to  the  frontal  bone^  so  as 
to  complete  the  orbit  on  the  outside. 

3rd.  Tiie  inferior  ma-ciliary  bone,  which  constitutes  the  lower 
jaw,  presents  nearly  the  form  of  a  horse  shoe. 

There  are  also  other  bones  in  the  face  called  palate,  nasal,  un- 
guifonne  or  tackry  trial,  ftp 'may  bones,  and  miner. 

27.  Trie  cranium  is  a  bony  cavily  of  an  oval  form   serving  to 
contain  the  brain.     It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  several  flat  bones 
which  are  :  in  front,  the  frontal,  upon  the  sides   and  above,  the 
parietal,   behind  the  occipital,  below,  and  on  the  sides, the  tem- 
poral, and  in  the  middle  the  sphenoid,  and  inferiorly  and  in  front, 
the  etkmoid,  which  also  serves  to  complete  the  orbits  and   ft  rm 
the  superior  part  of  the  nasal  fossae. 

21.  For  what  purposes  are  those  inequalities  which  are  found  on  the  AUJT- 
faces  of  bones?  What  are  processes  ? 

22.  What  is  the  skeleton  ?  Is  every  animal  provided  with  a  nkeleton  1 

23.  How  is  the  skeleton  divided  ? 

24.  What  is  the  situation  and  division  of  the  head? 

25.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  several  cav.ties  of  the 

26.  What  are  the  chief  bones  of  the  face  ? 
97.  Describe  the  cranium  ? 


THE  SKELETON. 


97 


-/      Fig.  37. 


28.  On  the  sides  of  the.  cranium,  we  remark  an  opening  for 
the  auditory  canal,  and  on  its  inferior  face  or  base,  we  find  many 

Expla nation  of  Fip.  37. — Skeleton  of  man  ;  the  external  line  indicates  the 
shape  of  the  body. — f.  the  frontal  hone.  — we.  the  cervical  vertebrae, — s.  the 
Btemurn,  or  breast  bone, — co.  the  rihs, — vl.  the  lumbar  vertebrae, — a.  the 
abdomen, — sa.  the  sacrum, — cl.  the  clavicle, — o.  the  scapula  or  shoulder 
blade, — A.  the  humerus, — r.  the  radius, — c.  the  cubit  us  or  ulna, — c«.  the 
carpus, — me  the  metacarpus. — p.  and  pt.  the  phalanges,  or  bones  of  the 
finders, — i.  the  ilium,— fr.the  frmur, — ro.  the  rotnla,  patella,  or  knee-pan, — 
ti.  the  tibia, — per.  the  fibula, — ta.  the  tarsus, — mt.  the  metatarsus. — or.  the 
toes, — cal  the  calcis  or  heel. 

28.  Of  what  use  are  the  neveral  holes  at  the  base  of  the  cranium? 


9S 


THE  SKELETON. 


12 


holes  which  serve  to  give  passage  to  nerves  and  blood  vessels. 
One  of  th^se  holes,  very  much  larger  than  the  others,  called  the 
occipital  hole, — foramen  occipital*, — corresponds  with  the  verte- 
bral canal,  and  gives  passage  to  the  spinal  marrow;  and  on  each 
side  of  this  great  hole  we  find  an  eminence  called  coudule,  which 
serves  f  >r  the  articulation  of  the  head  upon  the  vertebral  column. 
29.  The  trunk  is  composed  of  the  vertebral  column,  the  ribs 
an  1  xter  num. 

Fig.  33.  SO.  The  vertebral  column,  or  spine,  is  a  species  of 
bony  stalk,  or  stem,  which  occupies  the  middle  line 
'(  of  the  back,  and  extends  from  the  head  to  the  poste- 
/vc  rior  extremity  of  the  body,  (Fig.  38.);  it  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  small,  short  bones, 
called  vertebra,  (Fig.  39.)  and  pre- 
sents throughout  its  whole  length  a 
canal  formed  by  the  union  of  the  holes 
by  which  each  vertebra  is  pierced ; 
this  canal  serves  to  lodge  the  spinal 
marrow.  Each  of  these  bones  pre- 
sents in  front  of  the  hole,  a  species  of  thick,  solid  disc, 
called  the  body  of  the  vertebra,  which  is  very  firmly 
united  to  the  body  of  the  vertebra  next  to  it ;  behind, 
we  remark  prolongations  called  transverse  and  spinous 
processes  which  form  what  is  commonly  called  the  spine. 

31.  Tlie  vertebral  column  is  divided  into  five  regions,  namely: 

32.  1st.  The  cervical  region,  which  constitutes  the   frame   of 
the  neck :  in  man,  and  all  the  other  mammalia,  it  is  composed  of 
seven  vertebrae,  (Fig.  38,  tc.) 

33.  2n  1.  The  dortal,  or  thoracic  region,  which  gives   attach- 
ment to  the  ribs  which  form  the  ch.rst9  or  thorax;  the  vertebrae  of 
this  region  in  man,  are  twelve  in  number,  (Tig.  38,  vd.) 

34.  3rd.  The  lumbar  region,  which  terminates  the  back  below, 
in  man,  is  composed  of  five  vertebrae,  (Fig.  38,  vl) 

35.  4th.  The  .sacral  region  which  articulates  with  the  bones  of 
the  hips,  is  composed,  in  man,  of  five  vertebrae,  so  run,  or  fused  to- 
gether, as  to  form  but  a  single  bone  called  the  sacrum,  (Fig,  38,  s.) 

Explanation  of  Fi-j.  3!)  — A  vertebra  seen  from  above, — c.  ils  body, — /.  a 
hole  fl»r  I  he  passage  of  the  spinal  marrow, — at.  transverse  processes, — sp. 
s-pinal  process  direct-ed  ha1  k  wards. 

29.  What  part-:  compose  the  trunk? 

30.  What  is  the  vertebra,  column  ?  What  is  found  in  the  vertebral  canal? 
Jl.  Into  how  many  parts  is  the  vertebral  column  divided? 

32  How  many  vertebrae  are  found  in  the  cervical  region? 

J3.  Wnat  is  the  number  of  dorsal  vertebrae? 

34.  Wh;it  is  the  number  ol  lumbar  vertebrse? 

35.  What  is  the  siortun  ? 


-co 


THE  SKELETON.  99 


36.  5th.  The  caudal  or  cnccyqian  region,  which  in  man  i-s  com- 
posed of  four  very  small  vertebrae,  concealed  beneath  the  skin,  in 
many  animals,  is  very  long,  constituting  the  tail,  (Fig.  38.  co.) 

37.  The  vertebral  column  seen  in  profile,  presents  four  curves, 
which  correspond  to  the  neck,  the  back,  the  loins,  and  the  ;>*'/r/>, 
or  basin,  and  which  serve  to  augment  its  solidity.     On  its  sides, 
we  find,  between  all  the  vertebrae,  a  hole  which  gives  passage  to 
a  nerve,  coming  from  the  spinal  marrow. 

38.  The  rib*)  which  are  attached  to  the  dorsal  vertebra?,  are 
long,  flat  bones,  which  enclose  the  thorax:  on  each  side  :  they  are 
curved  and  bear  considerable  resemblance   to  a  half  hoop.     In 
man  there  are  twelve  pairs.     The  seven  first,  called  true  ribs, 
articulate  in  front  with  the  sternum,  through  the  medium  of  a 
cartilage ;  the  five  last  pairs,  called  false  ribs,  terminate  anteriorly 
by  a  cartilage  which  joins  that  of  the  preceeding  rib,  or  they  are 
entirely  without  cartilage. 

39.  The  aU'rnnm.  is  a  flat  bone  placed  in  front  of  the  thorax;    it 
articulates  with  the  ribs  and  with  the  clavicles. 

40.  The  superior  or  anterior  eytremiiie*  are  composed  of  the 
shoulder,  the  arm,  the  fore-arm  and  the  hand. 

41.  The  .\iionLier  is  the  basis  of  the  whole  limb  attached  to  it. 
It  consists  of  two  bones;  the  scapula  or  shoulder  blade,  and  the 
clavicle,  or  collar-bone. 

42.  The  scapula  is  a  large  bone  nearly  triangular  in  shape, 
which  is  applied  against  the  ribs  at  the  superior  and  lateral  part  oi 
the  back.     At  its  superior  external  angle,  it  presents  an  enlarged 
articular  surface,  slightly  hollowed,  which  receives  the  bone  of 
the  arm  and  is  called  the  ylenoni  carity  of  t/ic  scapula.     On  the 
posterior  face  of  this  bone  there  is  a  projecting  comb  or  riJge 
which  extends  over  the  articulation  of  the  shoulder,  and  arti- 
culates with   the   clavicle.      This   prolongation   is    named     the 
acroiaion. 

43.  The  dariclf  is  a  long  thin  bone  situated  at  the  base  of  the 
neck ;  it  extends  like  a  buttress  between  the  scapula  and  sternum; 

36.  What  are  those  vertehrae  called  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the  tail  in 
animals  ? 

37  For  what  use  ar  the  several  holes  found  between  the  vertebra  on  (he 
liijes  of  the  spinal  column  1 

38.  VVhat  are  the  ribs?  Whatnumbei  of  ribs  belong  to  man?  How  many 
tre  true  and  how  many  are  false  ribs  ? 

33.  What  is  the  sternum? 

40.  How  are  the  superior  extremities  divided  ? 

4  I.   What  is  the  shoulder  ?    ^  hat  bones  c  >mpose  the  shoulder? 

42.  Wl  ere  is  the  scapula  placed  ?  VVhat  is  the  glenoid  cavity  ?    WL&t  iff 
4ie  acromion? 

43.  What  is  the  use  of  the  clavicle  ? 

K2 


100  THE  SKELETON 


and  serves  to  keep  the  first  of  these  bones  in  its  natural  position, 
and  to  prevent  the  shoulder  from  falling  too  far  forward. 

44.  The  arm  is  firmed  of  a  single  bone  called  the  humerus. 
This  bone  is  of  a  cylindrical  form  and  has  a  swelling  at  its  supe- 
rior  extremity  called  the  head  of  the  humerus  which  articulates 
with  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scnpula.     Its  inferior  extremity  is 
enlarged  transversely  and  resembles  a  pully  upon  which  moves 

he  fore  arm. 

45.  The  fore-arm  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  bones  which 
are;  on  the   inner  side,  the  cuhitv*  or  n/na,  and  on  the  outside, 
(the  side  on  which  the  thumb  is  placed)  the  radi'is.     These  bones 
are  joined  to  the  humerus  by  their  superior  extremities  and  to  the 
hand  by  their  inferior  extremities. 

46.  The  hand  in  man  is  divided  into  three  regions ;  the  carpus, 
the  metucarpns  and  fingers;  the  carpus  or  wrist,  is  composed  of 
eight  small  bones,  ranged  in  two  rows  and  united  to  each  other  by 
fibrous  threads  which  preserve  their  mutual  relations  and  permit 
them  to  move  a  little  upon  each  other,  by  aid  of  the  smooth  sur- 
faces by  which  they  are  in  contact. 

47.  The  metacarpus  is  composed  of  five  bones  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  origin  of  the  fingers.     They  are  placed  parallel, 
one  along  side  of  the  other;  their  superior  extremities  articulate 
with  the  bones  of  the  carpus  and  their  inferior  extremities  with 
the  fingers. 

48.  The  fingers  are  composed  of  small  bones  articulated  one  at 
the  extremity  of  the  other,  and  called  phalanges.     Except  the 
thumb  which  has  but  two,  each  finger  has  three  of  these  bones. 

49.  The  iitfeiior  extremities  are  formed  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  superior;  the   hip  represents  the  shoulder,  the 
thigh  the  arm;  the  leg  the  fore-arm,  and  the  foot  the  hand. 

50.  The  hip  or  haunch  serves  to  support  the  abdominal  mem- 
ber or  lower  extremity,  as  the  shoulder  sustains  the  thoracic 
member      It  is  formed  on  each  side  by  a   very  large,  and    very 
strong  bone,  the  ilium.     These  bones  are  united  together  in  front, 
and  behind  they  articulate  with  the  sacrum,  so  as  to  form   in 
conjunction   with  it  at  the  bottom   of  the  belly,  a  sort  of  bony 
belt  called  the  pdvis  or  hasin.     In  infancy,  we  find  that  the  ilium 
bone  consists  of  three  separate  portions  one  of  which  resembles 

44.   What  is  the  character  of  the  bone  of  the  arm  ' 
4-5.  How  is  the  fore  arm  formed? 

46.  How  is  the  hand  divided  ? 

47.  What  is  the  metacarpus? 

48.  How  are  the  fingers  composed  ? 

4!).  How  are  the  inferior  extremities  formed  ? 

50.  What  forms  the  hip  ?   What  is  the  condition  of  the  pelvis  in  infancy  * 


THE  SKELETON.  101 


the  scapula  somewhat,  and  is  called  the  ilium  ;  the  second, placed 
in  front,  called  the  pubis,  may,  perhaps  compare  with  the  clavi- 
cle, and  the  third,  situated  below  and  behind,  has  received  the 
name  of  isc/tiunt,  and  which  supports  the  whole  weight  of  the 
body  when  seated ;  with  age  these  three  bones  become  solidified 
into  one.  At  the  point  where  they  unite,  we  find  a  very  deep, 
circular  cavity  called  the  coiyloid  or  more  commonly  the  accta 
bttlum,  in  which  is  articulated  the  thigh  bone. 

51.  The  pelvis  serves  not  only  to  support  the  lower  extremi- 
ties, but  also  assists  in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  viscera  con- 
tained in  the  abdomen,  and  in  forming  the  parietes  of  this  cavity. 

52.  The   thiy/t   is  formed  of  a  single  bone  called  the  femur, 
This  bone  is  articulated  by  its  superior  extremity   with  the  hip 
bone,  and    by    its  inferior  extremity  with  the  leg. 

53.  The  teg  is  formed  of  two  bones  very  solidly  united  to  each 
other.     The  bone  placed  internally,  very  much  larger  than  the 
other  and  called  tibia  articulates  with  the  femur   by  its  superior 
extremity.     The  bone  which  is  placed  externally  does  not  quite 
reach  to  the  femur,  and  is  only  united  to  the  tibia ;    it  is  named 
fibula.     In  front  of  the  articulation  of  the  leg  with  the  thigh   is 
placed  a  small  bone  named  rotula  or  patella,  which  is  designed 
to  strengthen  the  knee  joint. 

54.  The  font  is  divided  into   three  regions;  the  tarsus,  the- 
metatarsus  and   tors.     It  differs  from  the  hand   chiefly    in    tne 
shortness  of  the  fingers,  that  is,  toes,  their  limited  mobility  and 
by  the  disposition  of  the  tarsus. 

55.  The  tarsus  is  constituted  of  the  union  of  seven  bones,  one 
of  which  alone,  called  the  astragalus,  articulates  with  the   two 
bones  of  the  leg ;  another  one  of  these  bones,  called  the  c«/ci.v, 
forms  a  considerable  projection  behind   which  constitutes    the 
heel. 

56.  The  metatarsus  is  composed  of  five  bones  which  are  united 
to  the  tarsus  and  to  the  bones  of  the  toes,  and  which  are  ar- 
ranged like  the  bones  of  the  metacarpus. 

57.  Like  the  fingers,  the   toes   are   composed    of  p'  alnnges. 
called  first,  second,  and  third  phalanges.     The  great  toe  ha-t  but 

wo  phalanges,  each  of  the   others  has  three.     All  th*H»   little 

51.  What  are  th-  uses  of  the  pelvis  '! 

5'2.  What  number  of  bones  is  in  the  thigh  ? 

53.  How  many  bones  constitute  the  leg  ?  What  are  they  callet       'Vhat  i» 
he  patella? 

54.  How  do-s  the  foot  differ  from  the  hand  ? 

55.  What  constitutes  the  tarsus  ? 

56    Of  what  bones  is  the  metatarsus  composed  ? 
5V    Of  why*  hoaes  arc  the  toes  composed  1 
9 


102  THE  MUSCLES. 


oones  are  joined  to  each  other  by  articular  surfaces,  the  contact 
and  junction  of  which  are  secured  by  fibrous  ligaments. 

OF  THE  MUSCLR3. 

Fig.  40.  58.  All  the  great  motions  of  the  body  are  caused 
by  the  displacement  or  movement  of  some  of  the 
bones  which  form  the  skeleton;  but  these  bones  can- 
,  .\\.d  not  move  of  themselves,  and  only  change  their  posi- 
tion through  the  action  of  other  organs  attached  to 
them,  which,  by  contracting,  draw  the  bones  after 
them. 

b  59.  These  motor  organs  are  the  mnsvlea.  They 
are  very  numerous  and  constitute  what  is  commonly 
called  flesh,  and  form  nearly  one  half  of  the  total  mass 
of  the  body.  They  are  a  species  of  ribbon  or  fleshy 
cords  composed  of  fasciculi  or  bundles  of  fibres  united 
•>  AW!  together,  and  which  have  the  property  of  contraction 
or  elongation,  (Fiy.  40.)  All  the  muscles  destined  to 
produce  the  great  movements  of  the  body,  are  fixed 
to  the  skeleton  by  their  two  extremities.  Tt,  therefore, 
follows,  that  when  they  contract  they  displace  those 
bones  which  offer  the  least  resistance,  and  -draw  them 
towards  those  which  are  not  moveable,  but  serve  as  points  of  sup- 
port for  moving  the  first.  Now,  in  most  instances,  the  bones  are 
more  moveable  in  proportion  as  they  are  more  distant  from  the 
centre  of  the  body:  and  .the  muscles  which  are  fixed  between 
two  bones,  generally  act  upon  that  which  is  most  distant,  and  we 
always  tind  the  muscles,  destined  to  move  a  bone,  extend  from  it 
towards  the  trunk ;  for  example,  the  muscles  which  move  the 
fingers,  occupy  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  the  fore-arm  ;  those 
which  flex  the  fore-arm  upon  the  arm,  occupy  the  arm,  and  those 
which  move  the  arm  on  the  shoulder,  are  placed  upon  the  shoulder, 
(Pig.  40.) 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  however,  the  muscles  displace 
the  bones  which  serve  them  as  points  of  support.  When  the  body 
is  suspended  by  the  hands,  and  we  endeavour  to  raise  it,  the 
flexor  muscles  of  the  fore-arm,  not  being  able  to  displace  the  latter, 
approximate  the  arm,  and  thus  draw  the  whole  body  after  it. 

Explanation  of  Fig,  40. — The  muscles  of  the  superior  extremity, — d.  the 
deltoid  muscle,  which  extends  from  the  shoulder  to  the  arm,  and  by  contract* 
»ng,  elevates  the  litter, — b.  the  biceps  muscle  w.iich  bends  the  arm, — -f.  one 
of  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fingers. 

58.  How  are  the  great  motions  of  the  body  produced  ? 

59.  What  are  muscles  ? 


THE   MUSCLES. 


105 


Fig.  43. 

t\ 


ml 


60.  When  a  muscle  contracts,  it  swells  ;  its  fibres, 
which  in  a  state  of  repose,  were  straight,  fold  in  zig- 
zag, (Figs.  41,  a/,d  42.)  and  their  two  extremities  are 
brought  nnar  to  each  other,  drawing  also   with   them 
the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached,  but  their  volume 
is  not  augmented. 

61.  The  two  extremities  of  muscles  are 
solidly  fixed  to  the  bones,  and  to  the  other 
parts    which  they    are  designed   to   set    in 

motion,  such  as  the  skin,  through  the  medium  of  white 
cords,  called  tendons,  (Fiy.  43.)  or  membranes  of  the 
same  nature,  named  a/xmcuroses,  or  fascia.  In  con- 
tracting, they  must  necessarily  draw  towards  each  other 
the  two  bones  to  which  the  tendons  or  aponeuroses  are 
attached.  An  example  will  enable  us  better  to  under- 
stand this  mechanism. 

If  we  suppose  the  muscle,  m.  (Fiy.  44.) 
to  be  attached  to  the  humerus,  and  to 
the  ulna  or  cubitus,  which  articulates 
first,  forming  the  elbow  joint,    by 
moveable  ligaments,  it  is  evident 
that  when  this   muscle    contracts, 
these    bones    will    approach  each 
other,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  45.     This 
example  will  give  an    idea    of  all 
the  motions  of  the  skeleton. 

62.  The  number  of  muscles  of  the  human  body  is   very  con- 
siderable ;  they  are  reckoned  at  470  ;  in  general,  they  form  about 
the  skeleton  two  layers,  and  are  distinguished  into  superficial 
and  deep  seated 

63.  The  muscles  which  are  designed  to  move  any  particulai 
bone,  are  almost  always  placed  around  that  portion  of  the  skele- 


Fig.  44. 


Expla  nation  of  Fig.  41.  —  A  fragment  of  muscle  showing-  the  muscular 
fasciculi  (bundles  of  muscular  fibres,)  straight,  and  at  u-st. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  42.  —  The  same  in  a  state  of  contraction. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  43.—  A  muscle  (m.)  with  the  tendons  (<,/.)  by  which 
it  is  attached  to  the  bonrs. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  44.  —  Bon?  of  the  arm  (h.)  and  the  fore-arm,  (af.) 
with  one  of  the  flexor  muscles  of  ihe  fore-arm  (m.)  \\\  a  state  of  rest. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  45.  —  The  same  at  the  moment  of  contraction. 

60.  What  changes  lake  place  by  the  contraction  of  a  muscle? 

61.  To  wh  it  prLs  are  the  extremities  of  the  mu<clt  s  attached  ?     What  is 
.he  necessary  consequence  of  ihe  contraction  of  a  muscle  ? 

62.  What  is  the  disposition  of  the  muscles?  How  are  they  distinguished  .' 


63.  How  are  the  muscles,  situate^ 
move  ? 


to  the  parts  they  are  destined 


104  THE  MUSCLES. 


ton  which  is  situated  between  the  bone  to  be  moved  and  the 
centre  of  the  body ;  for  example,  the  muscles  which  move  the 
head  are  situated  on  the  neck  ;  those  which  move  the  arm  are  on 
the  shoulder;  those  which  flex  and  extend  the  fore  arm  surround 
the  humerus,  and  those  which  flex  and  extend  the  fingers  are 
placed  upon  the  fore-arm ;  the  same  is  true  of  the  muscles  of  the 
lower  extremities. 

64.  The  muscles  are  divided  into  flexors,   extensor^  rotators, 
elevators,  &c.  according  to  the  uses  which  they  subserve. 

65.  The  contraction  of  the  muscles  is  determined  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  and  each  muscle  receives  a  nerve 
which  is  ramified  in  its  substance. 

66.  This  contraction  is  sometimes  effected  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Will  and  sometimes  independently  of  it. 

67.  The  muscles  whose  action  is  dependent  upon  the  Will  be- 
long to  the  functions  of  relation,  and  those    whose   motions  are 
involuntary  (the  heart  for  example)  belong  to  the  functions  of 
vegetative  life. 

68.  The  strength  or  power  of  a  muscle  depends  partly  upon  its 
volume,  and  partly  on  the  manner  of  its  attachment  to  the  bone 
which  it  moves. 

69.  All  things  being  in  other  respects  equal,  the  strongest  mus- 
cles are  the  largest,  and  from  exercise  both  their  volume  and 
strength  are  at  the  same  time  increased. 

70  In  the  bodies  of  animals,  the  muscles  and  the  bones  are 
generally  placed  unfavourably  for  the  power  of  motion,  but  very 
favourably  for  rapidity,  as  may  be  easily  demonstrated  by  the 
elementary  principles  of  mechanism. 

71.  The  muscles  not  only  serve  to  enable  us  to  execute  dif- 
ferent motions,  but  they  are  also  equally  necessary  to  maintain 
the  moveable  bortes  in  the  positions  proper  to  them,  and  their 
action  determines  the  attitudes. 

For  example,  the  head  by  its  own  weight  has  a  tendency  to 
fall  forward,  but  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  on  the  back  of  the 
neck  keep  it  erect 

64.  How  are  the  muscles  divided? 

65.  What  determines  the  contraction  of  the  muscles? 

.     06.  Is  muscular  contraclion  always  the  result  of  the  influence  of  the  will? 

67.  To  what  principal  functions  do  the  muscles  belong  ? 

68.  Upon  what  does  the  string11  h  or  power  of  a  muscle  depend  ? 
6f).  What  is  the  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  muscles  ? 

70.  Whether  are  the  muscles  and  bones  arranged  more  with  a  view  to 
power  or  rapidity  ? 

71.  Do  the  muscles  serve  any  other  purpose  than  to  produce  motion  ? 


OF  ATTITUDE.  105 


OF  THE  ATTITUDES. 

72.  The  term  attitude  is  applied  to  any  position  of  the  body 
that  is  permanent  during  any  considerable  time. 

[In  order  to  explain  the  mechanism  of  the  attitudes  it  will  be 
necessary  to  enter  into  some  of  the  details  which  properly  belong 
to  the  study  of  physics. 

73.  All    bodies   when  left  to  themselves,  tend  towards  each 
other,  from  the  influence  of  a  general  force  called  aft  ruction,  and 
the  force  with  which  one  body  attracts  another,  is  great    in   pro- 
portion as  its  mass  id  larger  comparatively  than  that  of  the  at- 
tracted body. 

74.  Now,  the  mass  of  the  earth  being  incomparably  larger 
than  that  of  the  animals,  plants,  stones,   and   all  other  objects 
spread  upon  its  surface,  attracts  them  unceasingly,  and  tends  to 
cause  them  to  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  globe. 

75.  In  order  that  a  body  shall  rest  in  the  position  it  occupies, 
it  must  be  sustained  by  something  capable  of  resisting  this  force 
of  attraction,  and   which  does  not  give  way  under  its  weight, 
such  as  the  solid  surface  of  the  earth  itself,  or  an   inflexible  body 
placed  between  it  and  this  surface. 

76.  We  name,  base   of  support,  the   space  occupied  by  the 
points  by  which  an  object  supports  itself  upon  a  resistant   body, 
or  the  space  comprised  between  these  points. 

77.  In  order  that  a  solid  body  shall  rest  motionless  or  immova 
ble,  upon  its  base  of  support  and  not  fall,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
all  its  parts  should  be  thus  sustained ;  it  is  enough  to  sustain  it  by 
a  single  point,  provided  this  point  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  that 
if  a  part  of  the  mass  fall  towards  the  earth,  another  part  op- 
posite to  it  and  of  equal  weight,  be  elevated  as  much ;  the  weight 
of  one  part  counterbalancing  the  other.     Centre  <>f  gravity  is  the 
name  given  to  the  point  about  which  all  points  of  a  body  recipro- 
cally balance  each  other,  and  if  it  be  sustained,  it  is  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  entire  mass  in  place. 

78.  It  follows  then  that  to  prevent  a  body  from  falling,  it  is 
sufficient  that  its  base  be  placed  vertically  beneath  its  centre  ol 
gravity. 

11.  What  is  meant  by  attitude? 

73.  What  is  attraction? 

74.  Why  do  all  bodies  tend  t->  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  globe  ? 

75.  What  condition  is  necessary  that  a  body  may  preserve  its  position  1 

76.  What  is  meant  by  base  of  support? 

77.  What  is  meant  hy  centre  of  gravity? 

78.  What  is  necessary  to  prevent  a  body  from  falling  ? 


106  OF  ATTITUDE. 


7.*  It  is  also  easy  to  understand  that  its  equilibrium  will  be 
more  stable  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  its  base  ;  for  then  its 
centre  of  gravity  may  be  more  displaced,  without  the  vertical  line 
which  passes  through  the  centre  of  gravity,  being  carried  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  base  of  support. 

The  more  the  centre  of  gravity  is  elevated  above  the  base  of 
support,  the  less  firm  on  the  contrary  will  be  the  equilibrium,  foi 
a  smaller  displacement  from  this  point  will  then  suffice  to  carrj 
the  vertical  line,  that  descends  from  it,  beyond  the  base  of  support 
which  soon  causes  the  body  to  fall.] 

The  term  attitude  is  applied  to  any  position  of  the  body  that  is 
permanent  during  any  considerable  time. 

80.  The  principal  attitudes  of  man  are :  lying,  sitting,  and  the 
erect  position  on  his  feet,  or  standing. 

81.  When  a  man  is  lying  on  his  back  or  on  his  belly,  all  parts 
of  the  body  rest  upon  the  earth  :  he  is  not  then  required  to  con- 
tract any  muscle  to  keep  them  in  place,  and  his  position  unites  in 
the  highest  degree  the  two  conditions  of  equilibrium,  to  wit;  the 
greatest  possible  extent  of  the  base  of  lu/tpu  t  and  the  proximity 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  to  this  base.     Hence  the  attitude  of  re- 
pose is  that  from  which  it  is  most  difficult  to  fall. 

82.  In  the  sitting  position  the  body  rests  upon  the  tuberosities 
of  the  ischium  or  haunch  bones  ;  the  base  of  support  is  considera- 
ble, since  it  is  represented  by  the  pelvis,  the  extent  of  which  is  in- 
creased by  the  soft  parts  which  cover  it;  this  position  also,  next 
to  lying,  offers  the  greatest  solidity ;  but  it  cannot  be  preserved 
without  muscular  action.     When  the  back  is  supported,  the  mus- 
cles of  the  neck  alone  contract  to  preserve  the  head  erect ;  but  if 
the  back  is  not  supported  (as  when  seated  on  a  stool  or  a  bench 
for  example)  then  the  greater  part  of  muscles  on  the  back  of  the 
trunk  contract  to  prevent  it  from  falling  forward,  and  fatigue  will 
sooner  or  later  result  from  this  permanent  action. 

83.  When  man  is  erect,  the  lower  extremities  sustain  the  body 
and  transmit  to  the  earth  the  weight  which  they  support.     Con 
sequently  these  limbs  must  not  bend  under  the  load,  and  must  be 
kept  straight  by  the  contraction  of  their  extensor  muscles. 

84.  In  this  position  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  body 
lies  in  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  base  of  support  is  circurn- 

79.  Why  is  a  body  firm  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  its  base  7 
80    What  are  tl'e  principal  attitudes  of  man  ? 

81.  What  position  or  attitude  is  preserved  without  muscular  exertion? 

82.  What  muscles  are  exerted  to  preserve  the  sitting  position  ? 

83.  What  supports  the  body  when  man  is  erect? 

81.  Wh  re  is  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  erect  position  ?  Where  is  th* 
base  of  support  in  the  erect  position  ? 


OF  LOCOMOTION.  107 


scribed  hy  the  space  comprised  between  the  two  feet.  Here  a 
slight  force  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  equilibrium,  and  it  is  only 
by  enlarging  the  base  of  support  in  one  direction  more  than  in 
another  that  a  fall  can  be  prevented. 

The  movements  by  which  we  regain  the  perpendicular  in  the 
i*ase  of  support  are  in  a  measure  automatic.  Thus,  to  resist  A 
force  tending  to  make  us  fall  forward  the  foot  is  rapidly  advanced  : 
if  the  body  leans  to  the  left  we  suddenly  extend  the  right  arm  to 
re-establish  the  equilibrium,  if  a  force  tends  to  throw  us  backward, 
we  put  a  foot  behind  and  throw  the  body  in  advance.  The  man 
who  has  a  large  belly  and  the  man  bearing  a  heavy  load  upon 
his  shoulders  are  both  obliged  to  assume  attitudes  that  change  the 
position  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  The  first  carries  the  body  back- 
wards in  order  that  the  vertical  line  passing  through  this  point 
may  alsj  fall  between  the  two  feet,  and  for  the  same  reason,  the 
second  bends  the  body  forward.  A  woman  who  carries  an  infant 
upon  her  right  arm  inclines  the  body  to  the  left  side:  thus,  we 
are  constantly  resorting  to  mechanics,  even  without  possessing  the 
most  elementary  notions  of  the  science,  and  the  most  certain 
causes  of  our  preservation  are  found  in  the  continual  application 
of  physical  laws,  of  which  our  reason  has  not  the  knowledge. 

When  an  animal  rests  upon  its  four  members  at  the  same  time, 
his  standing  is  more  firm,  more  solid  and  less  fatiguing:  for  the 
base  of  support  is  then  very  large.  Then,  without  inconvenience 
the  feet  may  be  much  smaller  than  in  the  bipeds  and  consequently 
lighter. 

OF  LOCOMOTION. 

85.  The  objects  of  the  motions  which  we  perform  is  either  to 
change  the  position  of  certain  parts  of  the  body,  or  to  transport 
us  from  one  place  to  another. 

86    The  faculty  of  changing  place  is  called  locomotion. 

87.  The  movements  of  progression  by  the  help  of  which  man 
and  animals  change  place,  are  produced  by  certain  parts  of  the 
Dody  which  being  flexed,  rest  upon  a  resisting  object,  and  being 
again  immediately  extended,  push  forward  the  rest  of  the  body. 

88.  In  man  the  organs  of  locomotion  are  the  abdominal  mem- 
bers, or  lower  extremities;  in  quadrupeds  the  thoracic   as  well 
as  the  abdominal  members  ;  and  in  birds  that  fly,  the  wings. 

89.  In  walking,  the  body  of  man  is  moved  alternately  by  onw 

85.  What  is  the  object  of  the  motions  which  we  perform  ? 

bG.  What  is  meant  by  locomotion? 

87.   How  is  progression  effected?  .^w* 

88    What  are  the  organs  of  locomotion  ? 

ti'.i    How  is  walking  distinguished  from  running  and  leaping'  OF  THE 


OF 


108  OF  LOCOMOTION. 


of  the  feet  and  sustained  by  the  other,  without  his  ever  ceasing 
completely  to  rest  on  the  ground.  This  last  circumstance  dis- 
tinguishes walking  from  leaping  and  running,  movements  in 
which  the  body  quits  the  earth  for  a  moment  and  launches  into 
fie  air. 

90.  In  walking,  one  of  the  feet  is  carried  forward,  while  the 
other  is  extended  on  the  leg,  and  as  this  last  member  is  supported 
on  the  ground,  its  elongation  displaces  the  pelvis  and  throws  the 
whole  body  forward.     When  the  foot  which  was  advanced  alights 
upon  the  ground,  the  pelvis  turns  on  the  femur  of  that  side,  and 
the  leg  which  was  at  rest  behind,  is  flexed  and  carried  front  of  the 
other,  touches  the  earth  and  in  its  turn  serves  to  sustain  the  body, 
while  the  other  limb  by  being  extended  gives  a  new  impulse  to 
the  pelvis.     By  the  aid  of  these  alternate  movements  of  flexion 
and  extension  each  limb  in  turn  bears  the  weight  of  the  body,  as 
it  would  do  when  standing  on  one  foot,  and  at  each  step  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the   whole  mass  of  the  body  is  pushed  for- 
ward. 

Security  in  walking  is  always  in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  degree  of 
separation  of  the  feet,  and  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  mobility  of 
the  surface  that  supports  us.  It  is  only  at  the  end  of  a  certain 
time  that  sailors  walk  securely  upon  the  deck.  When  they  have 
once  "  got  their  sea  legs"  it  is  very  easy  to  recognise  them  on 
shore  from  the  habit  which  they  have  of  considerably  separating 
the  feet  in  walking. 

91.  Leaping  or  jumping  is  a  movement  by  which  a  man  pro- 
jects himself  into  the  air  and  again  falls  to  the  ground  as  soon  as 
the  effect  of  the  impulsion  is  lost. 

92.  The  mechanism  of  the  leap  consists  entirely  in  the  previous 
flexion  of  the  joints  and  their  sudden  extension.     When  a  jumper 
wishes  to  spring,  he  shortens  himself  by  folding  himself  up  as  it 
were  upon  himself;  the  leg  is  flexed  forward  on  the  foot,  the 
thigh  is  also  flexed  back  on  the  leg,  and  the  trunk   with  the 
pelvis  are  flexed  forward  on  the  thigh ;  and,  when  one  wishes  to 
spring  with  all  his  strength,  the  trunk  is  flexed  upon  itself  like  a 
spring.     In  these  preliminaries  of  the  leap,  the  lower  extremities 
and  the  body  describe  a  series  of  zigzags.     At  the  moment  ol 
the  leap  all  the  articulations  are  extended  at  the  same  instant  and 
.raise  the  body  with  such  rapidity  that  it  leaps  into  the  air  like  an 
elastic  rod  that  had  been  bent  to  the  ground,  and  then  suddenly 
abandoned  to  its  elasticity  or  spring. 

90-  What  is  the  mechanism  of  walking  ? 

91.  What  is  leaping/ 

92.  What  is  the  mechanism  of  a  leap  ? 


OF  LOCOMOTION. 


93.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  parts  which  act  most  in  the 
leap  are  the  legs :  indeed,  it  is  upon  them  that  the  weight  to  be 
raised  is  most  considerable.     The  facility  and  rapidity  of  the  leap 
are  always  in  direct  ratio  to  the  energy  of  the  muscles,  which 
determine  the  extension  of  the  legs.     It  is  observed  that  the  most 
vigorous  dancers  and  even  great  walkers  have  the  calf  strongly 
developed :  indeed  this  part  is  formed  of  the  muscles  which  effect 
the  extension  of  the  leg  upon  the  foot. 

94.  Running  partakes  both  of  walking  and  leaping.     There  is 
always  a  moment  in  running  when  the  body  is  suspended  in  the 
air,  a  circumstance  which  distinguishes  it  from  rapid  walking  in 
which  the  foot  that  rests  behind  does  not  leave  the  ground  until 
the  forward  one  again  touches  it. 

95.  Swimming  and  flying  are  movements  analogous  to  those 
of  leaping,  but  which  take  place  in  water  or  in  the  air,  fluids 
whose  resistance  to  a  certain  extent,  takes  the  place  of  that  of 
the  ground  in  the  act  of  leaping.     . 

96.  When  an  animal  is  destined  to  live  in  water  and  to  swim, 
its   members  have  a  different   form  from  that  of  those  animals 
which  are  organized  for  walking  only.     The  limbs  are  then  short 
and  constitute  a  species  of  paddles  or  oars  called  fins.     When 
the  animal  is  designed  to  elevate  himself  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
thoracic  members  on  the  contrary  are  very  much  expanded  and 
are  so  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  body  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
moveable  sail  or  fan,  fit  to  strike  the  air  with  force. 

In  one  of  the  following  lessons,  when  we  consider  the  mam- 
malia and  birds,  we  shall  recur  to  the  study  of  these  organs,  and 
we  shall  see  how  the  same  members  may  constitute  in  different 
animals,  the  instruments  of  prehension,  of  walking,  of  natation, 
or  of  flight. 

We  here  conclude  what  we  proposed  to  say  generally,  on  the 
manner  in  which  the  principal  phenomena  of  animal  life  are  per- 
formed,  and  on  the  organs  which  serve  as  instruments  for  the 
exercise  of  the  faculties  with  which  animals  are  endowed. 

We  shall  next  proceed  to  study  each  of  these  animals  in  par 
ticular,  and  see  in  what  way  they  differ  from  each  other 

END  OF  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

93.  What  is  remarkable  in  the  legs  of  great  dancers  and  walkers  ? 

94.  What  is  the  mechanism  of  running  / 

95.  What  are  swimming  and  flying  ? 

96.  What  is  the  character  of  those  animals  which  are  destined  to  live  in 
water?  What  is  the  character  of  the  limbs  of  those   animals  destined  to 
ilevate  themselves  in  the  air  ? 


BOOK  II. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

FIRST  BRANCH:— VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

CLASS  I. —  MAMMALIA. 

MAMMALOGY:  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAMMALS,  OR  MILK 
EATING  ANIMALS. 


BIG-ELK. — CHIEF  OP  THE  OMAWHAWS. 
(Type  of  the  American  Race.) 


MAMMALOGY. 

THE 

NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAMMIFEROUS  ANIMALS. 

LESSON   I. 

CLASSIFICATION  OP  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM — Comparison  of  Ani- 
mals—  Tkeir  division  into  four  BRANCHES — Characters  of  each  of 
these  Branches — Division  of  the  VERTEBRATA  into  four  Classes. 

OF  CLASSIFICATION  IN  GENERAL. 

As  we  have  seen,  when  considering  the  subject  of  "Physiology 
and  Animal  Mechanism,"  The  Natural  History  of  Animals  is 
termed  Zooloyy. 

For  the  convenience  of  study,  Zoology  has  been  divided  into 
several  branches,  the  highest  of  which  is  termed  Mammalogy. 
This  embraces  the  study  of  the  Natural  History  of  all  Mam- 
miferous  Animals,  man  included,  and  is  to  engage  our  attention 
at  present. 

1.  The  number  of  different  animals  inhabiting  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  is  so  great,  that  in  order  to  study  them  with  ease,  it  is 
necessary  to  establish  amongst  them,  divisions,  and  sub-divisions. 
Each  of  the  groups  thus  formed  should  be  characterised  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  enable  us  always  to  recognise,  with  certainty,  the 
individuals  which  belong  to  it,  and  the  group  should  be  designated 
by  a  particular  name. 

The  assemblage  of  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions  constitutes 
what  is  termed  a  CLASSIFICATION. 

2.  In  the  classification  of  animals,  the  name  Species  is  applied 
to  an  assemblage  of  individuals  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  each  other,  and  which  are  perpetuated  with  the  same  essential 
qualities.     Thus,  man,  the  dog,  the  horse  constitute,  to  the  eye  of 
the  zoologist,  so  many  distinct  species. 

3.  Sometimes  one  species  differs  considerably  from  all  the 
others ;  but,  in  general,  there  is  a  number  of  them,  greater  or 
less,  which  very  much  resemble  each  other,  being  distinguished 
only  by  some  unimportant  differences ;  the  horse  and  the  ass,  the 

1.  What  must  be  done  to  enable  us  to  study  the  animal  kingdom  with 
ease?     What  is  meant  by  a  classification? 
9    What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  species? 


12 OF  CLASSIFICATION  IN  GENERAL. 

dog  and  the  wolf,  are  examples.  In  the  natural  classifications, 
the  species  which  resemble '  each  other,  we  unite  into  groups, 
called  genera,  and  add  to  their  peculiar  or  specific  name  a 
generic  name  which  is  common  to  them:  thus,  we  say,  to  desig- 
nate the  different  species  of  bears,  URSUS  arctos,  (the  brown 
bear  of  Europe);  URSUS  Americanus,  (the  North  American  black 
bear);  URSUS  maritimus,  (the  polar  bear,  &c.);  and  LACERTA 
agilis,  LACERTA  ocellata,  LACERTA  viridis,  &c.,  to  designate  the 
various  species  of  the  genus  LACERTA  or  lizard. 

4.  Each  animal  has,  as  is  seen  above,  two  names,  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  family  and  baptismal  names  of  men,  with  the 
difference  that  they  are  inverted  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
placed ;  the  name  of  the  genus  always  precedes  the  name  of  the 
species. 

5.  Those  genera  which  resemble  each  other  most,  are  united 
into  TRIBES,  and  the  tribes  into  FAMILIES. 

6.  The  families  are  distributed  on   the  same  principle,  into 
groups  of  a  higher  rank  to  which  the  name  of  ORDER  is  applied. 

7.  Finally,  the  orders  are,  in  turn,  united  into  CLASSES,  and  the 
classes  themselves  are  the  divisions  of  the  great  BRANCHES  of  which 
the  animal  kingdom  is  composed. 

8.  Thus,  to  class  the  various  animals,  the  animal  kingdom  is 
divided  into 

Branches;  the  branches  into 
Classes;  the  classes   into 
Orders;  the  orders  into 

Families;  the  families  into 

Tribes;  the   tribes   into 
Genera ;  the  genera  into 

Species,  which  designate 
assemblages  of  individuals. 

The  following  table  shows  sti^  better  the  manner  in  which  the 
animal  kingdom  is  divided  into  groups,  which  in  turn  are  sub-di- 
vided farther  and  farther,  until  all  the  individuals  belonging  to  the 
different  species  are  separated  from  each  other. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  genera  ? 

4.  What   is  the   number   of  names  given  to  each  animal  ?     What  is  the 
character  of  these  two  names  ?     Is  the  generic  or  specific  name  placed  first 
jj  order  ? 

5.  What  constitutes  a  tribe?    What  is  included  in  the  term  family  ? 
G    How  is  the  term  order  applied  ? 

7.  When   several   orders   are  united  together,  what  do  they  constitute  ? 
What  do  the  classes  form? 

8.  To  enable  us  to  study  it  with  greater  facility,  how  is  the  animal  king 
dom  divided  ' 


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14  CLASSIFICATION. 


9.  Each  one  of  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom  has  a  particular   name.     For  example ; — one  of  the 
branches  is  called  the  branch  of  the  vertebrata,    (or  vertebrated 
animals,)    another    the    branch    of  the  molluscous   animals,  or 
mollusca,  &c.;  the  first  of  these   branches  is  divided  into  many 
classes,  one  of  which  is.  known  as  the  class  of  birds,  another  as 
the  class  of  reptiles,  tyc. 

10.  To   enable   the   naturalist  to  know    whether  the  animal 
which  he  studies,  belongs  to  this  or  that  branch  or  family,  &,c., 
it  is  necessary  that  each  of  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions,  under 
consideration,  should  be  established  by  characters,  easily  recog- 
nised, and  derived  from  the  conformation  of  the  animals  themselves. 

1 1.  Therefore,  each  branch,  each  class,  ^ach  family  &c.,  should 
comprise  all  animals  which  possess  certain  peculiarities  of  organi- 
zation which  are  not  found  in  animals  belonging  to  other  branches 
or  other   divisions.     The  BRANCH  of  VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS,   for 
example,  comprises  every  animal  whose  body  in  sustained  by  an 
internal  skeleton;  the  CLASS  OF  FISHES  comprises  all  vertebrated 
animals   which,  in  place  of  lungs,  have  branchice.     To    know 
whether  an  animal  belongs  to  the  branch  of  vertebrata,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  examine  whether  it  has  an  internal  skeleton,  and  this 
character  once  ascertained,  it  cannot  possibly   be  confounded 
with  any  animal   belonging  to  the  other  branches.     To  know 
whether  a  vertebrated  animal  belongs  to  the  class  of  fishes  or  to 
another   class,   we  must  ascertain  whether  it  be  provided  with 
branchia3  or  lungs. 

12.  [To  illustrate  the  utility  of  classification,  a  few  examples 
will  suffice:  if  one  would,  without  resorting  to  some  such  means, 
ascertain  the  name  of  an  animal  that  he  had  killed  in  the  chase, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  compare  it  with  a  detailed  description  of 
all  other  animals;  for  if,  even  when  at  the  very  beginning  of 
this  inquiry,  we  should  meet  with  a  description  which  seemed 
to  correspond  to  the  object  in  question,  we  could  not  be  sure 
until  we  had  run  over  all  the  other  descriptions,  that  we  should 
not  find  one  still  more  exactly  applicable  to  this  being ;  the  labor 
would  be  consequently  almost  interminable.     But  if  we  employ 

9.  How  are  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  ihe  animal  kingdom  designa- 
ted ?  What  are  the  examples  ? 

10.  By   what  means  is  a  naturalist  enabled  to  know  whether  an  animal 
belongs  to  this  or  that  branch,  or  family  ? 

11.  What  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  those  animals  which  belong 
to  the  branch  of  vertebrated  animals?   What  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
«stic  of  fishes?  How  do  you  recognise  an  animal  that  belongs  to  the  branch 
of  the  vertebrata?   How  do  we  know  whether  a  vertebrated  animal  belong! 
lo  the  class  of  fishes  ? 

12.  Give  an  illustration  of  the  utility  of  classification  ? 


CLASSIFICATION. J5 

the  method  of  classification,  we  shall  arrive  almost  at  once,  and 
without  difficulty,  at  the  end  of  our  search.  I  will  suppose  that 
the  animal  in  question  is  an  eagle ;  I  find  at  first  that  it  has  a 
skeleton,  and  hence  I  know  that  it  belongs  to  the  branch  of  ver- 
iebrala,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  compare  it  with  animals  of  the 
other  branches ;  I  next  look  for  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  different  classes  of  vertebrata  from  each  other,  and  when  it  is 
determined  in  this  way,  that  it  is  an  animal  of  the  class  of  birds,  I 
exclude  from  the  comparison  which  remains  yet  to  be  made,  all 
the  mammalia,  all  the  reptiles,  and  all  the  fishes;  I  next  inquire 
whether  it  presents  the  characters  proper  to  this  or  that  order  of 
the  class  of  birds,  this  or  that  family ;  and  when  I  have  ascer- 
tained the  genus  to  which  it  belongs  I  have  only  to  compare  it 
with  a  very  small  number  of  animals  from  which  it  differs  only 
in  some  few,  not  very  important  particulars.] 

1 3.  [The  use  of  classification  permits  the  abbreviation,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  of  the  description  otherwise  necessary  to  make 
another  recognise  any  particular  animal ;  for  if  we  say  that  an 
animal  is  a  vertebrata  of  the  class  of  reptiles,   of  the   order  of 
sauria,  of  the  family  of  crocodiles,  it  requires,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it,  only  to  point  out  the  characters  by  which  it  differs 
from    a  very  small  number  of  other  animals,  which  possess,  in 
common  with  it,  characters  peculiar  to  the  order  and   family  of 
which  it  also  forms  a  part.     There  exists  here  the  same  difference 
as  would  be  found  in  seeking,  by  his  description  and  number,  a 
soldier  in  an  army  in  which  all  the  ranks  were  mingled,  or  in  a 
well-regulated  army  where   each  division,  each   brigade,    each 
regiment,  each  battalion,  each  company,  would  be  found  in  the 
place  belonging  to  them,  and  carrying  with  them  their  distinctive 
signs.] 

14.  [By  the  assistance  of  zoological  classification  we  are  enabled 
to  assign  to  an  animal  the  name  which  belongs  to  it,  in  the  same 
manner  as  we  are  enabled  to  find  a  person  we  seek  by  knowing 
the  direction  of  his  residence ;  in  the  latter  case  we  first  inquire 
his  country,  then  the  state,  the  county,  the  town,  the  street,  the 
house,  and  finally  the  room  in  which  he  dwells  ;  and  in   the  first 
case  we  ask  to  what  grand  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  does 
the  species  under  consideration  belong,  then  to  what  class,  what 
order,  what  family,  and  to  what  genus  it  must  be  assigned  ;  these 
questions  being  solved  the  work  is  almost  finished.] 

15.  As  we  have  seen,  it  is  by  the  differences  existing  between 

13.  What  is  the  striking  use  of  classification?     Illustrate  its  use? 

14.  What  does  zoological  classification  enable  us  to  do? 

15    By  what  means  are  we  able  to  classify  animals?     On  what  principle 


16^     THE  GREAT  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

animals  that  we  are  enabled  to  classify  them,  and  to  distinguish 
them  with  certainty ;  but  in  order  that  a  classification  may  be  as 
useful  as  possible,  it  must  serve  to  point  out  the  resemblances, 
greater  or  less,  which  are  remarked  amongst  them.  Also,  in  the 
classifications  called  the  natural  methods  or  orders,  the  only  really 
good  ones,  the  characters  upon  which  the  divisions  and  sub-di- 
visions of  the  animal  kingdom  are  based,  are  selected  in  such  a 
manner  that  each  group  includes  only  such  species  as  resemble 
each  other  the  more  in  proportion  as  this  group  itself  is  of  a  less 
elevated  rank  in  the  classification.  The  animals  of  the  same 
genus,  for  example,  will  differ  much  less  from  each  other  than 
those  of  two  genera  of  the  same  family,  and  these  latter  will  re- 
semble each  other  much  more  than  those  belonging  to  different 
orders,  and  in  a  still  stronger  degree,  than  those  of  different 
classes 

The  natural  classification  is,  in  a  manner,  a  synoptical  view  of 
all  the  variations  met  with  in  the  organization  of  animals,  and  in 
knowing  the  place  which  any  animal  occupies  in  such  a  method  or 
classification,  we  know  by  it  alone  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  its  organization,  and  the  manner  in  which  its  most  important 
functions  are  performed,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  important  part 
of  its  history,  because  its  habits  are  always  correspondent  with 
its  conformation. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM  INTO  BRANCHES. 

16.  In  ranging  animals  according  to  their  different  degrees  of 
resemblance  and  according  to  the  differences  more  or   less  con- 
siderable which  distinguish  them,  we  first  remark,  that  there 
exists  in  the  animal  kingdom,  four  principal  types  according   to 
which  nature  seems  to  have  constructed  all  these   beings ;  they 
are  divided  into  four  great  divisions  or  BRANCHES,  namely : 

1st.  Animalia  vertebrata — vertebrated  animals. 

2nd.  Animalia  mollusca — molluscous  animals. 

3rd.  Animalia  articulala — articulated  animals. 

4th.  Animalia  radiate— r  dialed  or  rayed  animals,  or  zoophytes. 

17.  The  folio  wing  table  presents  the  principal  characters  which 
distinguish  these  great  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom : 

arc  the  characters  of  animals  selected  in  the  classifications  according  to  the 
a.'itural  methods  ?  What  does  natural  classification  enable  us  to  know  ? 
Do  the  habits  of  an  animal  correspond  to  its  organization  and  conformation  ? 

16.  In  classifying  animals  what  do  we  first  observe?  What  arethegrcat 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom? 

17  ([HIT  The  following  questions  are  answered  in  the  table.)  What  are  the 
leading  characters  of  animals  belonging  tothe  branch  of  vertebrated  animals? 
How  is  this  branch  divided  /  What  sort  of  blood  have  inese  at  imals  7 


M 


18  GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS. 
FIRST  BRANCH 

OF   THE 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

ANIMALIA     VEKTEBRATA. 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS, 

18.  The  vertebrated  animals  are,  of  all  animated  beings,  those 
whose  faculties  are  most  various  and  most  perfect ;  whose  organs 
are  most  numerous  and  most  complicated. 

19.  The  existence  of  a  solid  frame  in  the  interior  of  the  body 
enables  them  to  attain  a  size  which  the  articulated  animals,  mol- 
lusca  and  zoophytes  never  reach  ;  and  this*  skeleton,  all  the  parts 
of  which  are  united  one  to  the  other  so  as  to  allow  of  motion, 
gives  to  their  movements  a  precision  and  a  vigour  which  are 
rarely  seen  in  other  animals. 

20.  The  portion  of  the  skeleton  which  is  never  wanting,  which 
varies  least,  and  which  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  important  of 
all,  is  the  bony  stem  that  encloses  the  encephalon,  and  which  is 
formed  by  the  cranium  and  vertebral  column. 

21.  The  external  senses  are  always  five  in  number,  and  the 
organs  which  are  the  seat  of  them,  present  with  slight  variation, 
the  same  disposition  as  in  man. 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  belonging  to  the 
branch  of  molluscous  animals?  How  is  this  branch  divided  ?  Have  animals 
of  this  branch  a  brain  or  spinal  marrow  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  their  nervous 
system?  Do  animals  of  this  branch  possess  an  internal  skeleton/ 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  belonging  to  the  branch 
of  articulated  animals?  What  is  the  character  of  the  nervous  system  of  this 
branch?  Has  this  branch  an  internal  skeleton ?  What  kind  of  blood  do 
animals  of  this  branch  possess  ?  What  classes  of  animals  are  included  in 
this  branch? 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  of  the  branch  of  radiated 
animals?  What  is  the  form  of  the  bodies  of  animals  of  this  branch? 
What  is  the  character  of  their  nervous  system  ?  Have  these  animals  a 
heart?  What  is  the  color  of  their  blood  ?  What  classes  does  this  branch 
include? 

18.  What  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  includes  the  most  perfectly  or- 
•ganised  animals  ? 

19.  What  are  the  chief  advantages  derived  from  an  internal  skeleton  by 
animals  of  the  branch  of  vcrtebrata? 

20.  What  pan  of  the  skeleton  is  never  absent  in  the  vertebrated  animals  ? 

21.  What  is  the  number  of  the  senses  in  the  vertebrata?     What  is  their 
disposition  "     [See  Physiology  and  Animal  Mechanism — Lesson  viii  and  ir. 


DIVISION  OF  THE  VERTEBRATA  INTO  CLASSES. ^0 

22.  The  apparatus  of  digestion,  in  this  great  division   of  the 
animal  kingdom,  offers  but  very  slight  differences. 

23.  The  blood  is  always  red,  and  circulates  in  vessels   called 
arteries  and  veins.     It  is  always  set  in  motion  by  a  fleshy  heart; 
but  the  conformation  of  this  last  organ,  as  well  as  the  route  of 
the  blood  in  the  circulatory  system,  varies  in  the  different  classes 
of  this  branch. 

24.  Respiration  always  takes  place  in  an  apparatus  situated 
in  an  internal  cavity  of  the  body,  but  it  is  not  always  aerial  as  in 
man ;  it  is  sometimes  aquatic,  and  then  the  lungs  are  replaced 
by  branchiae. 

DIVISION    OF   THE   BRANCH   OF  THE   VERTEBRATED 
ANIMALS  INTO  CLASSES. 

25.  Nature  seems  to  have  followed  the  same  general  plan  in 
the  creation  of  all  vertebrated  animals,  but  nevertheless,  these 
beings  differ  from  each  other,  and  some  of  the  differences  which 
they  present,  are  of  great  importance  in  the  exercise  of  life. 

26.  Therefore,  that  the  classification  of  the  vertebrated  ani- 
mals may  be,  in  a  manner,  a  picture  of  the  modification  of  their 
organization,  it  becomes  necessary  to  establish  amongst  them, 
four  grand  divisions,  called  classes,  which  are  named  as  follows : 

MAMMALIA, 
BIRDS, 
REPTILES, 
FISHES. 

27.  The  following  table   presents   at  a  view,   the   principa. 
characters  of  these  classes : 

22.  What  is  remarked  of  the  apparatus  of  digestion  in  this  great  division 
of  ihe  animal  kingdom  ? 

23.  What  is  the  color  of  the  b'ood  in  the  vertebrata  ?     How  does  it  circu- 
late ?     Ho  v  is  the  blood  set  in  motion  ?     Is  the  conformation    of  the  heart 
and  the  route  of  the  blood  in  the  circulatory  system  always  the  same  in  the 
different  classes  of  the  branch  of  vertebrate  ? 

24.  How  does  respiration  take  place   in   the   vertebrata?     Is   it  always 
aerial  as  in  man  ?       When  respiration  is  aquatic,  is  it  effected  through  the 
medium  of  lungs? 

25.  In  vvhat  respect  are  the  differences  presented  by  vertebrated  animals 
important  ? 

26.  How    many  classes  compose  the  branch   of  vertebrata  ?     What   are 
these  classes  called? 

27.  ({\jTQueslions  answered  by  the  table."}  What  are  the  characters  of  am 
mals  of  the  class  mammalia?     How  many  cavities  has  the  heart?     Is  the 
blood  warm  nr  cold  in  animals  of  this  class? 

What   is  the  character  of  the   respiration  in  the  class  of  birds  ?     Is  the 
blood  cold  in  this  class  of  animals  ?     How  many  cavities  has  the  heart  ? 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 


Viviparous,  and  provided  with  teats,  to  suckle 
their  young. 

Lungs;  respiration  simple;  blood  warm;  circu- 
lation double  and  complete ;  heart  with  four  dis- 


£ 

tinct  cavities. 

H 

>  "5 

< 

2 

Oviparous,  and 
without  teats. 

Respiration 
atria  I  ;  with 
lungs. 

1   (Classes.) 
Mammalia, 

Respiration  double  ;  ~\ 


I  blood  warm  ;    circula-  [ 
lion  double  and  com-  \-Birds. 
plete;  heart  with  four  j 
!  distinct  cavities.  J 

]       Respiration  simple;  ^ 
j  blood  cold  ;  ciiculation  j 

incompl  te;    heart  ge-  \-Reptiles. 
j  nerally  with  but  th  ee  j 
^  cavities. 

Respiration  aquatic;  with  bronchia;  )  „.  , 
blood  cold;  heart  with  but  two  cavities.  C  *tstie8' 


LESSON   II. 

MAMMALIA — Peculiarities  of  organization  of  Animals  of  this 
Class. — Division  into  orders. 

CLASS     OF     MAMMALIA. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  class  of  mammalia  is  composed  of  man,  and  all  ani- 
mals which  resemble  him  in  the  most  important  parts  of  their 
organization ;  this  class  is  naturally  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
animal  kingdom  as  comprising  those  beings  whose  movements 
are  most  varied,  whose  sensations  are  most  delicate,  faculties 
most  numerous,  and  intelligence  most  developed;  it  interests  us 
more  than  any  other  class,  because  it  includes  the  most  useful 
animals,   either  in  affording  us  nourishment,  assisting  in   our 
labors,  or  contributing  towards  our  manufactures. 

2.  The  mammalia  are  born  alive,  and  in  the  early  period  of 
life,  are  nourished  by  the  mother  with  milk,  which  is  formed  in 
glands  called  mammce,  or  teats;  animals  of  this  class  alone  are 
provided  with  these  organs,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  called 
mammalia,  or  mammiferous  animals. 

What  is  the  character  of  the  respiiation  in  Reptiles?  What  is  the  char- 
acter  of  the  blood  of  Reptiiis?  Is  the  circulation  complete  ?  How  many 
cavities  has  the  heart  in  the  class  of  Reptiles  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  respiration  of  fishes?  How  many  cavities 
has  the  heart  ?  Is  the  blood  of  fishes  warm  or  cold  ? 

1.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  class  of  mammalia?     Why  is  this 
cla^s  placed  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 

2.  How  are  animals  of  the  class  mammalia  nourished?    Why  are  they 
sailed  mammalia  or  mammiferous  f 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA.  21 

3.  Circulation  and  respiration  are  carried  on  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  man.     In  all  the  mammalia  the  blood  is  warm,  and  the 
heart  has  four  distinct  cavities ;  two  ventricles  and  two  auricles. 
The  lungs  are  always  composed  of  a  great  number  of  very  small 
cells,  and  do  not  permit  the  air  to  pass  from  them  into  different 
parts  of  the  body,  as  is  the  case  in  birds. 

4.  In  general,  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  at  first  sight,  one  of  the 
mammalia  from  a  bird,  a  reptile,  a  fish,  or  any  other  animal,  by 
simply  considering  its  external  form,  and  the  nature  of  its  integu- 
ments ;  the  mammalia  are  in  fact,  the  only  animals  whose  bodies 
are  covered  with  hair ;  ordinarily  their  general  form  does  not 
widely  differ  from  that  of  the  quadrupeds  which  are  constantly 
before  our  eyes,  and  which  we  naturally  take  as  the  type  of  the 
group ;  but  sometimes  they  are  not  recognised  by   so  superficial 
an  examination  ;  for  there  are  some  whose  skins  are  completely 
bare,  and  whose  bodies,  instead  of  resembling  that  of  a  horse, 
a  dog,  or  any  other  one  of  the  ordinary  mammalia,  possess  forms 
proper  to   fishes :  the  dolphin  and  whale  are  examples  of  this 
kind.— (ljlat<>  6,fg.  6,  7,  and  9.) 

5.  The   hairs  of  the  mammalia   are  very  analogous   to  the 
feathers  of  birds,  and  serve  in  the  same  manner  to  protect  the 
skin,  and  preserve  the  heat  developed  in  the  interior  of  the  body ; 
in  reptiles,  fishes  and  other  cold  blooded  animals  which  do  not 
manifestly  produce  internal  heat,  there  does  not  exist  any  similar 
envelope. 

6.  The  hairs   are  produced  like  the  teeth,  by  small  secreting 
organs,  lodged  in  the  thickness  of  the  derma,  or  immediately  be- 
neath it.     Each  hair  is  formed  in  a  little  pouch  or  bulb,  which 
communicates  externally  by  a  narrow  opening.     They   grow, 
like  the  teeth,  at  the  base,  or  new  matter  is  added  beneath  that 
which  is  already  formed. 

7.  On  examining  the  hairs  with  a  microscope,   we  sometimes 
perceive,  very  distinctly,  that  they  are  formed  of  a  number  of 
little  horns  received  one  into  the  other,  (like  a  nest  of  boxes,)  but 
in  general,  they  have  the  appearance  of  a  simple  horny  tube,  the 

3.  How  is  the  circulation  of  the  blood  carried  on  in  the  class  mammalia? 
Is  their  blood  warm  or  cold?     How  many  cavities  has  the  heart?     What  is 
the  character  of  the  lungs  of  these  animals  ?     Does  the  air  pass  from  the 
lungs  to  different  parts  of  the  body  ? 

4.  What  general  characters  enable  us  to  distinguish  animals  of  the  clasp 
mammalia  from  those  of  any  other  class?     Do   all   animals    of   the    class 
mammalia  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  common  quadrupeds? 

5.  What  is  the  u-e  of  the  hairs  on  the  bodies  of  the  mammalia'' 

6.  How  are  the  hairs  produced  ?     How  do  they  grow  / 

7.  What  is  the  structure  of  hairs  ? 

M2 


22  _  GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 

interior  of  which  seems  to  be  filled  with  a  pulpy  matter.  With 
most  animals  they  are  cylindrical  and  larger  at  the  base  than  at 
the  summit ;  they  are  often  more  or  less  flattened ;  there  are 
some  which  are  lamellar  and  similar  to  a  slip  of  grass ;  some- 
times their  surface  seems  to  be  perfectly  smooth,  at  others 
channelled,  or  armed  with  slight  asperities,  or  even  presenting  a 
necklace-like  (moniliform)  aspect ;  finally,  their  size,  form  and 
elasticity  vary  very  much  in  different  animals  and  in  the  different 
hairs  of  the  same  individual. 

8.  The  names   by   which  the  different  varieties  of  hairs  are 
distinguished,  differ  according  to  the  nature  of  these  horny  fila- 
ments, and  according  to  the  parts  whereon  they  grow.     They 
are  called  quill*  or  spinet,  when  they  are  very  thick,  pointed,  and 
stiff,  and  when  they  resemble  thorns,  (as  in  the    porcupine) ; 
bristles,  when  not  so  thick  and  less  resisting,  but  still,  very  stiff, 
except  towards  their  extremities;  hairs  do  not  differ  much  from 
bristles  except  in  being  somewhat  longer  and  not   so  thick;  like 
bristles,  they  are  generally  straight,  though  they  are  sometimes 
curly,  particularly  when  very  long.      Wool  is  a  species  of  long 
hair,  very  fine,  and  contorted  in  every   direction :  and  down  or 
fur  is  composed  of  hairs  of  extreme  fineness  and  softness,  and 
is  generally  found  beneath  a  layer  or  covering  of  stouter  hairs. 

9.  All  the  mammalia,  except  the  cetacea,   (that  is,  dolphins, 
porpoises,  &c.)  have   two   pairs  of  extremities    or    members, 
namely ;  one  pair   of  thoracic  or  anterior,  or  upper   extremi 
ties,  and  one  pair  of  posterior  (inferior)  or  abdominal  extremi 
ties;    but  in  the  cetacea  this  jatter  pair   is  absent,  and  conse- 
quently, there  only  exists  the  thoracic  members      The  structure 
of  all  these  animals  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  man,  and  the 
differences  observed,  principally  depend  upon  the  relative  length 
of  the  different  bones,  and  the  number  of  fingers,  which  never  ex- 
ceeds five. 

10.  The  conformation  of  the  extremities  varies  somewhat  ac- 
cording to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  designed.  They  may  serve 
1.  For    walking,   leaping,   &c.;  2.  For   prehension  and  touch; 
3.  For  burrowing  in  the  earth ;  4.  For  swimming ;   and  5.    For 
flying;  and  when  they  are  best  adapted  to  the  performance  of 
one  of  these  functions,  they  are  in  a  very  slight  degree,    or  not 
at  all  suited  to  the  others. 


8.  When  do  hairs  take  the  name  of  quills  or  spines  ?     What  are  bristles  ? 
What  is  wool  ?     What  is  fur  ?     What  is  down  ? 

9.  How  many  extremities  have  the  mammalia  ? 

U).  is  the  conformation  of  the  extremities  the  same  in  all  the  mammalia  ? 


GENERAL  CHARACTTRS  OF  MAMMALIA  23 

11.  When  the  extremities  are  designed   only  to  sustain   the 
body   and  to  move  it  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,   they 
e»nould  possess  great  solidity,  and  be  at  the    same  time   slender 
towards  the  end,  that  they  may  be  the  lighter  ;    now,  long  and 
flexible  fingers  or  toes  would  be  injurious  to  this  solidity,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  these  organs  would  augment  the  weight 
of  the  foot  without  any  advantage;  therefore,  with  those  animals 
whose  four  feet  only  serve  them  in  moving,  (walking  or  run- 
ning) the  fingers  or  toes  are  generally  but  two  or  three  in  num- 
ber, short,  slightly  flexible,  and  completely  enveloped  at  their  ex- 
tremity, by  nails,  which  protect  them. 

12.  When  the  extremities  are  designed  chiefly  for  touch,  and 
the  prehension  of  objects,  it  is  altogether  different ;  they  are  then 
very  flexible,  terminated  by  five  fingers  which  are  long,  well 
separated  from  each  other,  and  so  moveable  that  one  of  them,  at 
will,  can  change  position,  and  apply  itself  against  the  others,  like 
a  pair  of  plyers  or  pincers  ;  the  nail  is  in  this  case  flat,  and   only 
covers  the  back  of  the  end  of  the  fingers,  the  lower  surface  of 
which  resembles  a  soft  cushion  ;  and  the  whole  hand  can   move 
upon  the  fore-arm,  to  direct  itself  inwardly  or  outwardly,  as 
occasion  may  require. 

13  The  hoofs  of  the  horse  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  mode  of  conformation  of  extremities,  which  are  designed 
only  for  moving  the  animal ;  and  the  hand  of  man,  as  an  example 
of  the  conformation  of  these  same  organs  when  they  are  designed 
for  prehension  and  touch.  But  between  these  extremes  there  are 
a  great  many  intermediate  degrees,  and  with  a  great  many  of  the 
mammalia,  the  paws  serve  at  once  the  purposes  of  progression, 
prehension,  and  touch,  and  discharge  best,  either  one  or  other  of 
these  functions,  according  as  their  conformation  most  approaches 
to  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  modes  of  structure,  just  spoken  of. 

1 4.  The  mammalia  that  climb  best,  generally  have  paws  more 
or  less  like  our  hand,  and  suited  for  seizing  hold  of  objects  ;  there 
are  some,  however,  that  by  the  assistance  of  very  sharp  nails, 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  extremi'ioa  when  they  are  designed 
merely  to  sustain  the  animal  in  walking?     H.ive  they  many  long  flexible 
toes?     How  many  toes  has  an  animal  that  usually  goes  cm  all  fours? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  extremities  when  designed   for  touch 
or  prehension  ? 

13.  Give  examples  of  the  different  conformation  of  extremities  according 
to  their  uses  ? 

14.  What  are  the  means  or  instruments  provided  for  those  mammalia  that 
climb?     Do  any   of  fiis  C\SL  s   ever  assist  themselves  in  climbing-  by  any 
other  means  than  fieir  hands  or  feet? 

3 


S4 GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 

can  climb  trees  simply  grappling  them,  although  their  fingers  are 
neither  long,  very  flexible,  nor  opposable  one  to  the  other.  Most 
animals  of  this  kind  have  a  long  tail  which  serves  them  as  a 
balance-pole,  and  sometimes  this  organ  is  so  flexible  as  to  b« 
twisted  around  branches,  and  take  the  place  of  a  species  of  hand. 

15.  Differences  are  also  observed  in  the  conformation  of  the 
extremities,  according  as  the  animal  is  designed  to  run  or  leap ; 
in  the  latter  case,  the  posterior  extremities  are  generally  much 
longer  than  the  anterior — for  example,  the  rabbit  and  particularly 
the  kangaroo.     (ljlate  3,^.  1 1,  and  plate  4,yfy.  11.) 

16.  When  the  paws  are  to  be  used  by  the  animal  for  burrow- 
ing in  the  earth,  they  are  short,  (which   gives   them   greater 
strength,)  stout,  of  a  particular  form,  and  armed  with  strong 
nails.     Of  all  the  mammalia,  the  thoracic  extremities  of  the  mole 
possess  the  best  conformation  for  this  purpose.  (Plate  9^  fig.  10.) 

17.  In  order  that  the  extremities  be  formed  in  the  most  favor- 
able manner  for  swimming,  they  must  be  short  and  broad  so  as 
to  strike  the  water  with  the  greater  force  and  act  upon  a  large 
surface.     With  those  mammalia  whose  lives  are  entirely  aquatic, 
these  organs  are  formed  like  great  battledoors,  closely  resembling 
the  fins  of  fishes ;  the  arm  and  fore-arm  become  so  short  that  the 
paw  seems  to  be  attached  immediately  to  the  body ;  and  the 
fingers  are  all  concealed  beneath  a  common  skin.  (Plate  6,  fiy.  6.) 
When  an  animal  has  to  make  use  of  these  fins  to  drag  itself  on 
shore,  their  conformation  approaches  nearer  to  that  of  the  paw  of 
an  ordinary  quadruped,  ( I'Litc  3,  -fiy.  7,)  and  when  the  extremi- 
ties are   to  be  chiefly  used  in  running,   without  ceasing  to  be 
appropriate   for  swimming,  the  fingers  (toes)  are  simply  united 
by  a  loose  fold  of  skin,  called  web,  which  is  stretched  when  they 
are  separated,  and  thus  affords  the  requisite  breadth  to  the  paw. 

18.  When  the  extremities  of  the  mammalia  are  formed  for 
flying,  they  also  present  a  peculiar  disposition ;  the  thoracic  ex- 
tremities become  very  long,  and  the  fingers  especially  are  elon- 
gated out  of  proportion,  and  sustain  a  fold  of  sldn  from  the  sides, 
as  the  whale-bones  of  an  umbrella  stretch  the  silk   or   cloth. 
Bats  afford    us  an  example  of  this  kind  of  organization ;  their 
hands  are  in  a  manner  transformed  into  true  wings,  (I'late  %,fig  1.) 

15.  What  is  the  chu.acter  of  the  extremities  of  those  animals  that  run  or 
leap? 

1 6.  What  is  the  conformation  of  the  extremities  of  burrowing  animals  ? 
What  animal  has  extremities  best  adapted  for  burrowing  ? 

17.  What  is  the  form  of  the  extremities  of  swimming  animals  ?  What  \» 
the  form  of  the  extremities  of  aquatic  mammalia  ? 

16.  What  is  the  form  of  the  extremities  of  those  ma  nmalii  that  fly  ? 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 25 

There  are  too,  some  mammalia,  having  extremities  formed  for 
running,  or  for  climbing  solely,  that  can  also  sustain  themselves 
for  a  short  time  in  the  air  by  the  assistance  of  a  fold  of  skin 
which  extends  between  the  posterior  and  anterior  paws,  consti- 
tuting a  sort  of  parachute ;  ( riate  4,  Jiy.  8.)  but  this  mode  of 
organization  does  not  give  them  the  power  of  actually  flying,  like 
those  above  described. 

19.  Of  all  animals,  the  mammalia    have   most   intelligence, 
and  they  also  possess  the  most  voluminous  brains.     But  in  this 
respect  they  present  very  striking  differences  amongst  themselves, 
and  it  is  generally  remarked,  they  are  less  favored  in  this  parti- 
cular, in  proportion  as  they  depart  in  resemblance  from  man,  as 
their  forehead  is  more  retreating,  and  the  face  or  snout,  more 
projecting. 

20.  There  also  exists,  very  great  differences  among  the  mam- 
malia as  respects  their  teeth ;  and  as  the  conformation  of  these 
organs  is  always  in  relation  to  the  kind  of  food  upon  which  the 
animal  is  destined  to  feed,  we  will  say  a  few  words  about  them. 

21.  Some  mammalia  that  feed  upon  soft  insects,  (as  ants,)  or 
on  very  small  fishes  which  they  can  swallow  whole,  are  desti- 
tute of  teeth;  but  almost  all  animals  of  this  class  possess  teeth 
designed  for  the  division   of  food.     The  molar  teeth  are  gene- 
rally the  most  useful,  and  their  presence  is  more  constant  than  that 
of  the  incisor  or  canine  teeth ,  the  latter  are  necessary  to  seize 
and  divide  a  living  prey,  and  consequently  are  not  wanting  in 
any  carnivorous  animal ;  but  they  are  less  useful  to  herbivorous 
animals,  and  the  one  or  the  other  kind  is  absent  in  most  mammalia 
that  live  upon  vegetable  diet.     Sometimes,  too,  they  afford  no 
assistance  in  mastication,  though  very  much  developed,  and  con- 
stitute a  more  or  less  powerful  means  of  defence.     The  form  of 
the  molar  teeth  varies  according  to  the  food  of  the  animal. 

22.  In  those  animals  that  live  upon  flesh,  the  molars  are  com- 
pressed and  cutting,  and  so  arranged  as  to  act  one  against  the  other 
like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors;  (Plate  2,  fin.   12.)  in  those 
which  feed  upon  insects,  these  teeth  are  studded  with  contig- 

19.  What  class  of  animals  possess  the  largest  brains  ?     I*  the  brain  of  the 
same  size  in  all  the  mammalia? 

20.  Are  the  teeth  of  all  the  mammalia  the  same  ? 

21.  Are  any  of  the  mammalia  destitute  of  teeth  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  is 
most  generally  present  in  the  rmrnmalia  ?     In  what  family  of  animals  are 
the  incisor  arid  canine  teeth  always  present?  .  Does  the  form  of  the  molar 
teeth  depend  upon  the  kind  of  food  upon  which  the  animal  feeds? 

22.  What  is  the  form  of  the  molar  teeth  in  tho  e  animals  that  feed  on  flesh  ? 
What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  teeth  of  animals  that  feed  on  insects?  What 
are  the  peculiarities  of  the   teeth  ol  animals  that  feed  on  vegetables    and 
fruits  ? 


26 DIVISION  OF  MAMM\LIA  INTO  ORDERS. 

uous  points  which  correspond  in  a  manner,  and  are  received 
into  the  vacuities  left  between  them,  on  the  opposing  teeth  ; 
(ljlate  2,  fig.  5.)  and  when  the  food  of  the  animal  consists  prin- 
cipally of  the  tender  fruits,  these  teeth  are  simply  armed  with 
blunt  tubercles,  (Plate  2,  fig.  6  )  and  when  destined  to  grind 
vegetable  substances  which  are  more  or  less  hard,  they  are  termi- 
nated by  a  broad  surface  flattened  and  rough  like  that  of  a  mill- 
stone. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  CLASS  OF  MAMMALIA  INTO  ORDERS. 

23.  The  class  of  mammalia  is  divided  into  nine  orders,  which 
are  easily  distinguished  one  from  the  other,  by  the  differences 
observable  in  the  conformation  of  their  extremities,  of  their  teeth 
and  some  other  organs.  The  chief  characteristics  of  these 
groups  are  indicated,  in  the  following  synoptical  table  of  the 
classification  of  the  mammalia : — 


23.  How  is  the  clas«  of  mammalia  divided?  How  are  these  orders  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  ? 

O"  (Questions  answered  in  the  table.)  What  are  the  characters  of  the 
order  Bimana  ?  What  characterises  the  Quadrumana  ?  What  is  the  num. 
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What  characterises  the  order  Carnaria  ?     Have  they  any  hands  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  Rodentia? 

What  characterises  the  order  Edentata  ? 

By  what  part  of  the  animal  is  the  order  Marsupialia  distinguished  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  of  Pachydermata  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  of  Ruminantia  ? 

What  is  the  conformation  of  the  stomach  in  animals  of  the  two  last  order? 

What  characterises  the  order  Cetacea  ? 


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28  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


LESSON    III. 

ORDER  OP  BIMANA. —  The  only  species,  man. — Anatomical 
characters  which  distinguish  the  body  of  man  from  that  of  the 
other  mammalia. — Hands. — Feel. — Station. —  Brain. —  Human 
Races. 

ORDER     OF     BIMANA. 


1.  The  order  of  Bimana — two-handed — easily  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  class  of  mammalia,  by  the  existence  of  hands, 
on  the  thoracic  extremities  only,  and  by  many  other  anatomical 
characters,  is  composed  of  but  one  genus  embracing  one  species 
only : 

MAN.— HOMO. 

2.  Our  organization  differs  very  little  from  that  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  other  mammalia;  the  functions  of  the  life  of  nutrition  are 
carried  on  in  the  same  manner  in  them  as  with  us,  and  the  struc- 
ture of  the  organs  of  our  senses  presents  only  a  few  peculiarities ; 
but  still  man  is  placed    at  an  immense  distance  from  all  other 
animals,  and  what  especially  distinguishes  him,  is  that  wonderful 
intelligence  with  which  he  is  endowed,  and  the  possession  of  an 
immortal  soul. 

The  principal  physical  differences  which  distinguish  man,  are : 

3.  1.    The  great  develnpement  of  his  brain,  which  produces 
the  prominence  of  his  forehead. 

4.  2.   The  conformation  of  his  hands.     The  thoracic  extremi- 
ties of  man  are  disposed  in  the  most  favourable  manner  for  the 
exercise  of  their  functions  as  organs  of  prehension  and  touch  :  the 
ringers  are  long  and  flexible ;  they  ail  have  the  power  of  moving 
separately  and  distinctly  one  from  the  other,  which  is   not   the 
case  in   other  animals,  not  even  with  those  that  possess  hands. 
The  thumb,  which  is  opposable  to  them,  is  much  longer  in  pro- 
portion than  in  monkeys,  and,  consequently,  more  readily  ap- 
plied to  the  extremity  of  the  palmar  face  of  the  other  fingers, 
and  better  enabled  to  take  hold  of  small  objects.     The  nails  only 
cover  the  dorsal  faces  of  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  and  they 

1.  What   is  the   meaning  of  the  word   Bimana?     How  are  the  Bimana 
distinguished  ?     How  many  genera  and  species  compose  the  order  Bimana  T 

2.  Does  the  organization  of  the  Bimana  essentially  differ  from  that  of  tho 
mammalia  ?  What  especially  distinguishes  man  from  all  other  animals  ? 

3.  How  does  the  brain  of  man  differ  from  that  of  the  other  mammalia? 

4.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  hand  of  man  ? 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN.  29 

are  wide  and  flat,  thus  affording  a  support  to  the  touch,  without 
in  the  least  interfering  with  its  delicacy;  finally,  the  whole  hand 
is  capable  of  performing  extensive  rotatory  movements. 

5.  His  vertical  and  biped  position.     In  all  the  mammalia,  with 
the  exception  of  man,  the  superior  (anterior)  extremities  are  ap- 
plied to  the  same  uses  as  the  lower  (or  posterior  extremities,  and 
are  always  employed  in  locomotion,  even  when  they  are  formed  so 
as  to  be  used  also  as  organs  of  prehension  ;  in  man,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  lower  extremities  serve  exclusively  for  station,  (the 
act  of  standing)  and  for  locomotion,  while  the  superior  extremi- 
ties remain  free  to  act  as  the  organs  or  instruments  of  prehen- 
sion and  of  touch,  a  difference  in  itself  sufficient  to  render  them 
fit  to  discharge  their  function  with  a  degree  of  perfection  far  above 
any  thing  seen  in  the  monkey  tribes  and  other  mammalia.     The 
vertical  position,   which    under  every  circumstance,  is  so  very 
favourable  to  man,  has  been  considered  by  some  authors,  as  not 
being  natural  to  him,  and  as  being  solely  the  effect  of  education ; 
but  this  is  an  error.     Even  if  he  should  wish  to  do  so,  man  could 
not  habitually  walk  on  his  four  extremities;  of  all  the  mammalia 
the  lower  extremities  of  man  are  most  favourably  formed  for  sus- 
taining the  body,  and  every  thing,  in  his  whole  organization,  is 
disposed  for  the  vertical  position.     The  foot  is  very  large  and  so 
fashioned  as  to  rest  nearly  the  whole  of  its  lower  surface  upon 
the  ground ;  the  different  bones  of  which  it  is  formed  are  solidly 
united  one  to  the  other,  and  the  leg  rests  vertically  upon  it ;  the 
heel  projects  considerably  behind  this  articulation  ;  the  knee  can 
be  completely  extended,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  body  is  trans- 
mitted  directly  from  the  femur  to  the  tibia;  the  muscles  which 
extend  the  foot  and  the  thigh  are  remarkable  for  their  volume 
and  strength  ;  the  pelvis  is  much  larger  than  in  other  animals, 
which  by  separating  the  legs  and  feet  from  each  other,  increases 
the    extent  of  the  base  of  support ;  finally,  the  head  is  nearly 
balanced  on  the  trunk,  because  its  articulation  is  placed  beneath 
the  centre  of  its  mass,  and  the  eyes  are  directed  forward,  precisely 
in  the  direction  to  be  most  useful  to  him. 

6.  The  horizontal  position,  on  the  contrary,  would  be  extremely 
inconvenient  for  man,  for  then  his  (hind)  feet,  short  and  almost 
inflexible,  and  his  very  short  thigh,  would  bring  his  knee  against 
the  earth,  while  his  anterior  (superior)  extremities  would  be  too 
flexible  and  too  widely  separated  to  afford  him  a  solid  support , 

5.  What  is  the  position  of  man  ?     Could  man  sustain  with  ease  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time,  any  other  than  the  vertical  position?    Wny  can 
lie  tiot  jjo  on  all  fours? 

6.  Why  would  the  horizontal  pc  sition  be  inconvenient  for  man? 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


the  position  of  the  head,  its  weight,  and  the  absence  of  the  cer- 
vical ligament,  which  in  quadrupeds  serves  to  sustain  this  part  of 
(he  body,  would  not  permit  him  to  keep  it  elevated,  and  his  eyes 
being  directed  downwards  to  the  ground,  he  would  not  be  able  to 
see  before  him.  But  this  position  would  not  be  one  of  restraint 
only,  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  it  for  any  length  of  time, 
because  the  arteries  which  go  to  the  brain,  are  not  sub-divided  in 
man,  as  they  are  in  many  quadrupeds  ;  and  their  size  being  very 
considerable,  the  blood  would  be  carried  to  this  delicate  organ 
with  so  much  force  that  apoplexy  would  frequently  result. 

7.  Man  is  the  only  one  of  the  mammalia  that  is  truly  bimana  and 
biped  —  (two-handed,  and  two-footed.)     The  monkey  which   re- 
sembles him  in  many  respects,  has  the  superior  extremities  dis- 
posed like  his,  but  the  foot  is  very  different  ;  it  is  strictly  a  true 
hand  fitted  for  seizing  and  climbing,  while  our  foot  can   in  no 
manner,  serve  as  an  organ  of  prehension,  because  the  toes  have 
but  little  flexibility,  and  the  great  toe,  (answering  10  the  thumb,)  is 
larger  than  the  other  toes  (which  correspond  to  the  fingers  of  the 
hand,)  and  being  placed  upon  the  same  line,  is  not  opposable  to 
them. 

8.  4th.    7'hv  perfection  of  Ids  vocal  apparatus.     He  is  the  only 
animal  of  this  class  that  can  articulate  sounds,  and  it  is  to  this 
faculty  that  he  is  indebted  for  language. 

9.  But  man  who  is  so  much  favoured  in  regard  to  his  intelligence 
and  skill,  has  not  the  advantage  as  regards  strength.     His  swift- 
ness in  the  race  is  much  less  than  that  of  animals  of  his  stature, 
and  Nature  has  not  endowed  him  with  arms  either  for  defence  or 
attack.     The  greater    part  of  his  body  is  unprotected,  even  by 
nair,from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  and  he  is  of  all  animals, 
the  longest  in  acquiring  the  strength  necessary  to  enable  him  to 
supply  his  own  wants. 

10.  If  God  had  not  given  to  man  a  social  instinct,  a  love  for 
society,  and  the  powerful  intelligence  which  distinguishes  him, 
he  -would  have  been  one  of  the  most  miserable  beings  that  in- 
habit the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  probably  his  race  would  have  soon 
disappeared  ;    but  this   instinctive  impulse,  joined  to  a  sense  of 
his  weakness,  has  brought  him  to  living  in  society  with  his  fellow- 
men,  and  now,  his  intellectual  faculties  have  enabled  him  to  derive 
something  from  all  that  surrounds  him,  towards  insuring  his  sub- 
sistence and  happiness. 

7.  In  what  particulars  do  monkeys  differ  from  man? 

8.  To  what  faculty  is  man  indebted  for  language  ? 

9.  In  what  respect  is  man  superior  to  other  animals  ?     Jn  what  is  he  in* 
feiior  to  them  ? 

10.  What  cii-curnst;  nces  render  man  able  to  secure  his   subsistence  and 
nappiness/ 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  SPECIES. 3« 

The  detail  into  which  we  entered,  relative  to  the  structure 
of  man,  in  treating  on  Physiology  and  Anatomy,  in  the  first  of 
this  series,  (See  "  Physiology  and  Animal  Mechanism,")  renders  it 
unnecessary  to  speak  of  his  organization  in  this  place. 

THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

1 1 .  In  the  human  race,  as  we  have  said,  there  is  but  a  single 
species ;  nevertheless,  all  men  are  far  from  being  alike,  and  the 
principal  differences  which  they  present,  are  transmitted,  uninter- 
ruptedly, from  generation  to  generation ;  so  that  we  must  admit, 
into  this  single  species,  several  very  distinctly  marked  varieties. 

12.  The  people  who  inhabit  the  old  world  appear  to  belong  to 
three  principal  varieties,  designated  by  naturalists  under  the  names 
of  Caucasian  llace,  Mongolian  Have,  and  Ethiopian  Kacc. 

13.  The  CAUCASIAN  VARIETY.  (Plate  \,fig.  l>)  is  distinguished 
oy  the  beauty  of  the  oval  formed  by  the  head,  by  the  develope- 
ment  of  the  forehead,  the  horizontal  position  of  the  eyes,  the 
slight  projection  of  the  cheek  bones  and  jaws,  the  smooth  hair, 
and  white,  or  at  least,  whitish  color  of  the  skin;  it  is  also  remark- 
able  for  its  perfectibility,  for  it  has  given  origin  to  all  the  most 
civilized   people  on  earth.     It  occupies  all  Europe,  the  western 
part  of  Asia,  and  the  most  northern  part  of  Africa ;  but  it  is  be- 
lieved to  have  come  first  from  the  mountains  of  Caucasia,  situate 
between  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  and  for  this  reason  it  has 
been  called  Caucasian. 

14.  The  MONGOLIAN  VARIETY,  (Plate  1,  fig.  2.)  differs  in  many 
respects  from  the  Caucasian  variety  ;  here  the  face  is  flattened ; 
the  forehead  low,  retreating  and  square  ;  the  cheek  bones  project- 
ing ;  the  eyes  narrow  and  oblique ;  the  chin  slightly  projecting ; 
the  beard  thin,  the  hair  straight  and  black,  and  the  skin  of  an 
olive  color.     The   languages  proper  to  the  Mongolian  races  pos- 
sess characteristics  common  to  them  all,  which  clearly  separate 
them  from  people  of  Caucasian  origin :   the  words  of  which  the 
Mongolian  languages  are  composed  are  all  monosyllabic. 

15.  This  variety  of  the  human  race  is  found  to  the  east  of  those 
regions  which  are  inhabited  by  the  Caucasian  races ;  we  first 

11.  Are  all  the  races  of  mm  lr  e  e  ch  other? 

10.  Into  what  varieties  have  the  people  of  the  old  world  been  distinguished  ? 

13  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Caucasian  variety?  How  is  the 
term  Caucasian  derived  ? 

14.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mongolian  variety  ?  What  is  the 
character  of  the  languages  of  the  Mongolian  race  ? 

15  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  Mongolian  variety  found  ?  What 
remarkable  nation  is  composed  of  the  Mongolian  variety  ?  To  what  variety 
of  the  human  race  do  the  inhabitants  of  ^Japan,  Corea,  and  the  Carolina 
Islands  bdo  g  ? 


32 VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  SPECIES 

meet  them  in  the  great  desert  of  central  Asia,  where  are  found 
the  Calmuck  and  other  Mongolian  tribes  that  are  still  wanderers: 
almost  all  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  part  of  Siberia  belong  to  them ; 
but  the  most  remarkable  nation  composed  of  men  of  this  race,  is 
the  Chinese,  whose  vast  empire  claims  to  have  been  civilized  be- 
fore the  rest  of  the  world.  Corea,  Japan,  the  Marian  Isles,  the 
Caroline  Isles,  and  all  other  lands  which  extend  to  the  north  oi 
the  equator,  from  the  first  named  of  these  archipelagos  to  about 
the  180th  degree  of  east  longitude,  are  also  peopled  by  the  Mon- 
golian races.  Also,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Isles,  and 
of  the  neighbouring  part  of  the  west  coast  of  America,  belong 
to  this  great  division  of  the  human  species. 

16.  The  Malays,  who  occupy  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  Asiatic  archipelago,  constitute,  according  to  some 
naturalists,  a  variety  distinct  from  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian  ; 
but  most  authors  regard  them  as  the  offspring  of  the  two  races. 

17.  Finally,  the  Mongolian  races  appear  to  be  spread  through 
the  northern  region  of  the  two  hemispheres,  for  all  the  mixed  or 
mongrel  tribes  met  with  from  North  Cape,  in  Luirope,  to  Greenland, 
who  are  known  under  the  name  of  Laplanders,  Samoides,  Esqui- 
maux, &c.,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  them. 

18.  A  third,  and  very  distinct  branch  of  the  human  race,  is 
the  ETHIOPIAN,  or  NEGRO  VARIETY,  (t'late  1,/fy.  3.)  characterised 
by  the  compressed  skull,  the  flattened  nose,  the  projecting  muzzle, 
thick  lips,  crisped  hair,  and  skin  more  or  less  black.     It  is  confined 
to  the   south   of  mount  Atlas,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of 
several  very  distinct  races  or  tribes,  such  as  the  Mozambique,  the 
Bochisman  and  Hottentot. 

19.  The  primitive  population  of  Australia,  and  of  the  numer- 
ous archipelagos  of  Oceanica  or  Polynesia,  is  also  a  black  race, 
which  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  negroes  of  Mozam- 
bique, but  their  hair,  although  coarse,  is  straight ;  of  the  barba- 
rous and  miserable  people  to  whom  the  name  of  Alforians,  or 
Alfores  has  been  given,  we  have  very  little  knowledge. 

20.  Finally,  the  aborigines  of  America  are  regarded  by  some 
naturalists,  as  belonging  to  neither  of  the  three  varieties  of  the 

16.  What  parts  of  the  world  are  inhabited  by  Malays  ?     To  what  variety- 
do  they  belong  ? 

17.  To  what  variety  do  the  Laplanders,  Samoides  and  Esquimaux  belong  ? 

18.  How  is  the  Ethiopian  variety  characterised  ?    What  are  the  principal 
tribes  of  this  variety  ? 

19.  In  what  respect  do  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Australia  and  Polynesia 
differ  from  the  Ethiopian  variety  ?     What  is  known  of  the  Alforians  ? 

20.  Do  the  inhabitants  of  America  form  a  distinct  variety  or  race  of  th« 
human  family  ?     What  are  the  characteristics  of  Americans  1 


THE  AMERICAN  RACE 3* 

human  race  inhabiting  the  old  world.  Some  bear  a  strong  re 
semblance  to  the  Mongolian  races  of  Asia ;  others  on  the  con- 
trary, approach  somewhat  to  the  Furopean  form. 

"  The  American  Race,"  according  to  Professor  Morton, — the 
highest  authority  on  this  subject, — "  is  marked  by  a  brown  com- 
plexion, long,  black,  lank  hair,  and  deficient  beard.  The  eyes 
are  black  and  deep  set,  the  brow  low,  the  cheek  bones  high,  the 
nose  large  and  aquiline,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  lips  tumid  and 
compressed.  The  skull  is  small,  wide  between  the  parietal  pro- 
tuberances, prominent  at  the  vertex,  and  flat  on  the  occiput.  In 
their  mental  character,  the  Americans  are  averse  to  cultivation, 
and  slow  in  acquiring  knowledge  ;  restless,  revengeful,  and  fonc 
of  war,  and  wholly  destitute  of  maritime  adventure." — CRANU 
AMERICANA. 

The  American  Race  is  divided  into  two  families  : 

The  American  Family.      |      The  Toltecan  Family. 
(£7°  For  the  type  of  this  race,  see  frontispiece. 


LESSON    IV. 

ORDER  OF  QUADRUMANA. — Zoological  characters. —  Peculiarities 
of  their  organization  compared  to  their  habits. — Division  into 
three  families. —  Their  Zoological  characters. 

FAMILY  OF  MONKEYS. —  Division  into  monkeys  of  the  old  and  new 
continent. — Description  and  habits  of  the  principal  genera — 
(Ouranys,  (ribbons,  Guenons,  Magota,  Cynocephalus, —  Howl- 
ing Monkey.} 

FAMILY  OF  OUISTITIS.  —  Manners. 

FAMILY  OF  MAKIS. — Description,  and  Habits. 


ORDER     OF     THE     Q  U  A  D  R  U  M  A  N  A. 

1.  The  order  of  quadrumana  is  composed  of  a  considerable 
number  of  animals  which  resemble  man  more  than  any  other  of 
the   mammalia,   and    which  are   chiefly   characterised  by  their 
having  both  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  extremities  terminated 
by  hands.  (Plate  I,  fig.  4,  to  12.) 

2.  Like  the  Bimana,  the  quadrumana  have  incisor,  canine  and 
molar  teeth.     Their  eyes  are  directed  forward,  or  at  least,  ob- 

1.  What  chiefly  characterises  animals  of  the  order  Quadrumana?    What 
is  the  meaning-  of  the  t<  rm  Quadrumana? 

2.  What  kinds  of  teeth  have  the  Quadrumana?     In  what  particular*  du 
the  Quadrumana  resemble  man  ? 

N2 


34  MONKEY  FAMILY. 


liquely  and  their  mammae  are  situated  on  the  chest.  We  may 
also  add  that  their  brain  resembles  that  of  man  very  much,  and 
each  hemisphere  consists  of  three  lobes,  the  posterior  of  which 
covers  the  cerebellum;  and  their  abdominal  viscera  scarcely 
differ  from  ours. 

3.  The  order  of  Quadrumana  is  divided  into  three  families : 
Monkeys,  Ouistitis,  and  Makis.  The  following  table  exhibits  a 
synopsis  of  the  most  prominent  distinctive  characters  of  these 
three  groups. 

Families. 


Having  four  incisor  teeth 
in    each   jaw,  placed    very- 
nearly  in  a  vertical  position 


Nails  compres-") 
sed,  arched  and  j 
pointed  like  claws,  | 
on  all  the  fingers,  \-Oui8titi8. 
except  the  poste-  I 
r 


rior     thumbs,     or 

QUADRUMANA.  •{  [  great  toes.  J 

Having  the  incisor  teeth  more  numerous  than  1 
the  Monkey  or  Ouistitis,  or  at  least  differently   | 
disposed.     Nails  flat,  except  that  of  the  first,  or  }•  Makis. 
of  the   two  first   fingers   (or   toes)   posteriorly,  | 
t  which  is  pointed  and  raised.  J 

MONKEY  FAMILY.-SIMIA. 

4.  Monkeys  are  animals  of  middle  or  small  stature,  whose 
heads  are  almost  always  rounded,  the  muzzle  moderately  elon- 
gated, the  neck  short,  the  body  light,  and  extremities  slim, 
(Plate  1,  fig.  4.  to  9.)  They  are  covered  with  long  silky  hair; 
nevertheless,  their  resemblance  to  marr  is  very  considerable,  and 
there  are  some,  which  when  very  young,  have  the  facial  angle 
not  much  more  oblique  than  that  of  negroes ;  but  as  they  advance 
in  age  the  muzzle  always  becomes  much  more  projecting,  and 
with  some  monkeys,  this  part  of  the  face  is  so  much  developed 
as  to  resemble  that  of  the  dog.  The  actions  and  behaviour  of 
these  animals  bear  a  strong  analog>  eO  our  own.  Many  ot 
them  assume  with  ease  an  almost  vertical  position,  particularly 
when  aided  by  a  stick,  as  we  use  a  cane,  and  some  walk  in  this 
way,  but  never  so  firmly  as  man  ;  on  the  contrary  they  are  admi- 
rably organized  for  climbing  from  branch  to  branch.  The  length 
and  flexibility  of  their  limbs,  having  hands  on  all  four  extremities, 

3.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  order  Quadrumana  divided  ?     What  are 
they?     What  number  of  incisor  tteth  have  monkeys?     How  many  incisors 
have  the  Ouistitis?    What  kind  of  na>ls  have  monkeys?     What  soit  of  nails 
have  Ouistitis  ?     How  are  the  nails  characterised  ? 

4.  What  are  monkeys  ?     Ho  v  are  they  characterised  ? 


MONKEY   FAMILY. 


35 


and  the  great  strength  of  their  muscular  system,  permit  them  to 
display  an  astonishing  agility,  and  nature  has  moreover,  supplied 
many  of  these  animals  with  a  long  prehensile  tail,  which  serves 
them  as  a  fifth  hand,  in  suspending  themselves  from  branches, 
to  balance  themselves  in  the  air,  and  make  their  spring  when  they 
wish  to  leap  from  one  tree  to  another. 

5.  Monkeys  are  essentially  frugivorous,  and  their  teeth  bear  a 
great  similitude  to  those  of  man.     Their  molar  teeth  are  tuber- 
culated  like  ours,  but  their  canine  are  much  longer. 

6.  Monkeys  belong  to  warm  countries  ;  a  single  species  lives 
wild  in  Europe,  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  what  is  very  re- 
markable, all  those  of  the  new  world  possess  characters  which 
distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  old  continent. 

7.  These  zoological  characteristics,  so  strictly  in  harmony  with 
the  geographical  distribution  of  monkeys,  have  caused  them  to  be 
divided  into  two  tribes:  monkeys  of  the  old  world,  and  monkeys 
of  America.     They  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  char- 
acteristics : 

"  Molar  teeth  ;  five  on  each  side,  in  each  jaw, 

(as  in  man.) 
Almost  always  possess  ischiatic  callosities, 

species  of  fleshy  cushions  placed  beneath 

tlie  pelvis, 

Tail  never  prehensile. 
Nares  open  beneath  the  nose, and  separated 

by  a  narrow  partition. 
Checks  often  hollowed  into  pouches  called 

cheek  pouches,  which  communicate  with 

the  mouth,  and  serve  as  reservoirs  of  food 

obtained  by  the  animal. 


f  OF   THE 

OLD   CONTINENT. 


SlMIA. 

„ 

MONKEYS. 

OF    THE              -< 

_NEW  CONTINENT. 

Molar  teeth  ;  six  on  each  side,  and  in  each 

jaw. 

Inchiaiic  callosities  never  present. 
Tail,  often  p-ehensile. 
Narf-8,  almost  always  separated   by  a  broad 

partition,   and    open  at  the  sides  of  the 


5.  On  what  substances  do  monkeys  feed  ?  What  is  the  character  of  their 
molar  teeth  ? 

6.  In  what  pirts  of  the  wor'd  are  monkeys  found?     Are  the  monkeys  of 
the  old  and  new  world  alike  ? 

7.  How  are  monkey-  divided  ?     How  arc  monkeys  of  the  old  world  dis- 
tinguished from  those  o^the  new  ?     Wh  it  is  ihe  character  of  the  tail  ?    Haw 
do  the  nares  open  '(     How  do  the  narcs  of  the  monkeys  of  the  new  conti 
rent  ooen  7 

4 


S6  MONKEY  FAMILY- 


MONKEYS  OF  THE  OLD  CONTINENT. 

8.  These  animals  are  quite  numerous,  and,  in  their  organiza- 
tion, seem  to  form  a  series,  which  leads  by  degrees  from  man  to 
common  quadrupeds :  the  position  of  their  bodies,  almost  verti- 
cal in  some,  becomes  in  others  entirely  horizontal,  their  muzzle  ia 
elongated,  and  we  remark  at  the  same  time,  their  passions  be- 
come, proportionably,  more  and  more  violent  and  brutal. 

9.  The  principal  genera,  composing  the  tribe  of  monkeys  of 
the  old  world,  may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters. 

MONKEYS    OF   THE    OLD    CONTINENT. 


&i?it£ff*lllta  -"Fir 

8.^  *fB-fX5l9|  r^-s^ 

rr.  g-1  —  •      p  Q,  r*     *rg-  *•*»  s  —  «•  ^  "  o  R  ?••  &. 

2  ?-2  a  o  '»  »  5' «  "  *8  r  o  4r  nvS* 


8.  What  is  remarked  of  monkeys  of  the  old  continent? 

5.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  monkeys  of  the  old  continent ' 
What  are  the  chief  distinguishing  characters  of  the  Ourangs?  How  do  the 
Gibbons  differ  from  the  Ourangs  ?  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  Gurnons  1  How  does  the  Semnopithecus  differ  from  them  1  What 
characterises  the  Macacus  ?  How  do  you  distinguish  the  Cynocephalus  from 
other  monkeys? 


MONKEY   FAMILY.  37 


10.  The  OURANGS  are  the  only  monkeys  of  the  old  continent  des- 
titute of  ischiatic  callosities.  The  most  remarkable  species  of  this 
genus  the  OURANG-OUTANG,  which  inhabits  the  interior  of  Borneo, 
and  other  large  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  when  young,  is  said, 
to  resemble  man  more  than  any  other  animal.  (Plate  1.  fig.  4.) 

11.  The  body  is  covered  with  coarse  reddish  hair,  and  the  face 
is  smooth  and  bluish  ;  he  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  seven 
feet,  and  possesses  great  strength  and  agility;  he  dwells   in  the 
wildest  forests  and  habitually  keeps  himself  upon  the  trees;  he 
climbs  with  the  greatest  rapidity  and   springs  from  branch  to 
branch  with  as  much  facility  and  skill  as  the  little  monkeys  of 
America,  which  are  often  seen  in  our  streets.     On  the  ground, 
on  the  contrary,  Ourang  Outangs  walk  with  difficulty,  and  are  fre- 
quently obliged  to  place  their  hands  upon  the  earth  ;  we  see  them, 
using  their  long  arms  to  rabe  themselves  up,  and  throw  them- 
selves for  ward,  very  much  as  a  man  would  use  a  pair  of  crutches. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  these  animals  build  themselves  huts 
in  lofty  trees.     It  is  very  difficult  to  capture  them  when  they  have 
attained  adult  age,  as  they  defend  themselves  in  the  most  cou- 
rageous manner ;  but  when  young  they  are  easily  taken  ;  they 
then  show  a  good  deal  of  intelligence,  attach  themselves  to  those 
who  have  care  of  them,  and  readily  learn  to  imitate  a  great  many 
of  our  actions. 

12.  Another  species  of  the  genus  Ourang,  is  the  Chimpanzee, 
(Plate  l,Jig.  5.)  which  inhabits  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  is  also 
named  Jocko.     Its  arms  are  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  Ourang- 
Outang,  and  its  forehead  is   very  retreating;  its  stature  is  less 
than  that  of  man.     It  lives  in  troops. 

13.  The  GIBBONS  resemble  the  Ourang-Outangs  in  the  length 
of  their  arms,  but  their  forehead  is  very  receding.  They  live  in  the 
most  distant  parts  of  the  continent,  and  archipelago  of  India,  and 
like  the  Ourangs  inhabit  the  densest  forests.     They  are  not  very 
susceptible  of  education,  and  domesticating  them  seems  to  make 
them  lose  their  faculties 

14.  The  Siamang  differs  from  the  other  Gibbons  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  first  phalanges  of  the  second  and  third  toes  are 

10.  Have  the  Ourang^  ischiatic  callosities  or  not?  Wnen  do  Ourangs  most 
resemble  man?     In  what  part  of  the  world  a  e  they  found? 

11.  What  is  the  size  of  the  Ou'arig?    Does  the  Ouian<r-Outang  walk  with 
ease  in  the  erect  position  '.     How  do  they  live  ? 

12.  How  is  the  Chimpanzee  distinguished  from  the  Ouninjr-Outang  ? 

13.  In   what  particulars  do  the  Gibbons  resemble  the  Ourang  Outangs  ? 
In  what  part  of  the  world  are  they  found?     Are  they  readily  educated  ? 

14.  How  i  oes  the  Siamang  differ  from  o'her  Gibbous  ?  What  are  the  habits 
»,/"  the  Siamang?     IT  the  Siamang  remarkable  foi  the  acuteness  of  any  par 
ticular  sense  ? 


MONKEY    FAMILY. 


united  to  each  other  by  a  membrane ;  it  merits  notice  from  the 
singularity  of  its  habits.  These  monkeys  live  in  numerous 
troops,  which  seem  to  be  Under  the  direction  of  chiefs,  more 
active  and  more  robust  than  other  individuals  of  the  community ; 
during  the  day  they  preserve  silence,  concealed  in  the  foliage, 
but  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  they  raise  the  most  frightful  cries. 
When  on  the  ground,  they  can  scarcely  drag  themselves  along, 
and  they  climb  slowly  and  with  difficulty ;  but  they  possess  a 
vigilance  which  is  rarely  at  fault.  It  is  asserted  that  any  sound, 
not  understood  by  them,  which  is  heard  even  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile,  no  matter  how  slight  it  may  be,  is  sufficient,  to  put  them  to 
immediate  flight. 

15.  The  SEMNOPITHECUS  closely  resembles  the  Gibbon,  and  in- 
fiabits  India.     One  of  these  monkeys,  called  the  EateHus,  (Plate 
\ijiy-  6.)  is  held  in  veneration  by  the  Brahmins. 

16.  The  GUENONS,  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  long- 
tailed  monkeys,  inhabit  all  Africa.    They  acquire  a  middle  stature, 
and  in  leaping  from  tree  to  tree  display  great  agility,   but  they 
walk  very  little  and  with  difficulty. 

17.  The  MACACUS, — the  Macaque  resembles  ordinary  quad- 
rupeds in  form,  and  generally  has  a  short  tail.     It   inhabits   the 
southern  parts  of  Asia. 

18.  TheMAGOT  (Inuus  of  Cuvier)  differs  from  the  Macaque 
only   in  the  tail,  which   is  reduced  to  a  mere  tubercle.     This 
monkey  inhabits  Africa;  but  is  found  throughout  the  southern 
parts  of  Spain,  and  has  become  naturalized  on  the  least  accessi- 
ble parts  of  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.     It  is  the  only  animal  of  the 
order  quadrumana  that  inhabits  Europe.     When  young,  it  is 
easily  taught  through  fear  of  chastisement,  to  perform  various 
tricks,  and  jugglers  avail  themselves  of  this  fact  to  excite  the  curi- 
osity of  the  public ;  but  like  the  Macaque,  this  monkey  is  very 
capricious  and  deceitful,  and  when  old,  it  becomes  mischievous 
and  taciturn. 

19.  TheCvNOCEPHALUs,  (Plate  \.fig.  7.)  or  dog-head  monkey,  is 
the  most  brutal  and  tierce  animal  of  this  family,  and  next  after  the 
Ourang  and  Gibbon,  it  is  the  largest  and  strongest.     Its  extremi- 
ties are  short,  and  its  habitual  mode  of  progression  is  on  all  fours. 
In  leaping,  it  displays  great  agility,  and  habitually  frequents  ths 
wildest  mountains  or   wooded  coasts.     It  feeds   on  fruits  and 
vegetables ;  and  like  the  Guenons,  the  dog-head    monkeys  aid 

15.  What  monkey  is  worshipped  by  the  Brahmins? 

16.  What  are  the  Guenons  commonly  called? 

17.  Descrihe  the  Macacus? 

18.  How  docs  the  Ma  got  differ  from  the  Macacus  ?     Has  it  a  long  tail? 
In  what,  parts  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 

19    What  are  tho  characters  of  tho  Tynoccphalus  '(  What  does  it  feed  on  T 


MONKEY    FAMILY.  39 


each  other  in  pillaging  gardens  and  cultivated  fields.  Their 
strength  and  ferocity  render  them  dangerous,  even  to  man. 
They  nearly  all  inhabit  Africa. 

MONKEYS  OF  THE  NEW  CONTINENT. 

20.  The  monkeys  of  the  new  world  are  distinguished   from 
those  of  the  old,  by  the  characters  which  we  have  already  pointed 
out ;  but  their  habits  are  essentially  the  same.     They  inhabit  the 
dense  forests  of  this  vast  continent,  and  climb  the  highest  trees 
with  the  most  surprising  agility.     They  all  have  a  very  long  tail, 
which  sometimes  serves  them  as  a  balance-pole  in  maintaining 
their  equilibrium,  and  some  possess  the  power  of  wrapping  the 
tail  round   objects  and  seizing  them  with  so  much  strength  that 
the  animal  can,  in  this  manner,  suspend  itself  from  branches, 
as  it  would  do  with  a  fifth  hand.  (Plate  I,  fig.  8,  and9.)  Accord- 
ing to  the  difference  in  the  conformation  of  the  tail,  the  monkeys 
of  America  are  divided  into  two  groups,  namely ; 

2 1 .  The  SAPAJOUS,  whose  tails  are  prehensile,  and  for  a  part 
of  their  length  without  hair,  or  naked  on  the  inferior  surface. 

22.  The  SAGOUINS,  or  SAKIS,  in  which  the  tail  is  not  prehen- 
sile, and  never  naked  on  the  inferior  surface. 

23.  The  SAPAJOUS  are  more  agile  than  the  Sakis,  and  almost 
always  live  upon  trees;  this  group  is  divided  into  many  genera, 
one  of  which,  designated  by   the   name  of  SAJOU,  or  Sapajou, 
properly  so  called,  is  recognised  by  its  tail  being  entirely  covered 
with  hair ;  it  is  a  species  of  this  genus,  very  common  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  which  is  so  frequently  brought  to  Europe  and   this 
country,  to  amuse  the  public  by  its  tricks  and  agility. 

24.  Other  Sapajous  known  under  the  name  of  Alouattes,  01 
/tow/ ing  monkeys,  (Plate  1,  fiy.  9.)    are  equally  worthy  of  our 
attention  on  account  of  their  cries  and  the  form  of  their  muzzle; 
they   have  a  pyramidal  head,  and  an  oblique  visage,  the  lower 
jaw  is  extremely  large,  and  the  Os  hyoides  (hyoid-bone)  is  formed 
in  the  most  singular  manner;  the  body  of  this  bone  is  very  large, 
and  consists  of  an  osseous  case  with  thin  and  elastic  parietes, 
which  contains  two  membranous  pouches    that     communicate 

20.  Do  the  monkeys  of  the  new  continent  differ  in  all  respects  fiom  those 
of  the  old  continent?     What  are   the   general   characters   of  monkeys   of 
America  ?     Upon  the  difference  in  the  conformation  of  what   part    arc  the 
monkeys  of  America  divided  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tails  of  the  Sapajous  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tails  of  the  Sagouins  ? 

23.  Which  are  most  active,  the  Sapajous  or  Sakis?     What  are  the  char- 
aclers  of  theSajou? 

24.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the    Alouattes  ?     Why   are  they  called 
howling  monkeys  ? 

4* 


40  MONKEY  FAMILY. 


with  the  larynx.  The  air  finds  its  way  into  these  cavities,  and 
gives  to  me  hoarse  and  disagreeable  voice  of  these  animals,  a 
tone  which  has  rendered  them  celebrated,  and  obtained  for  them 
the  name  of  howling  monkeys.  Their  howling,  as  travellers  tell 
us,  may  be  heard  for  more  than  a  half  a  league  around,  and  has 
something  so  fearful  in  it,  that  it  may  be  mistaken  for  the  noise  oc- 
casioned by  the  sliding  away  of  mountains.  It  is  particularly  at 
the  rising  or  setting  of  the  sun,  or  the  approach  of  a  storm  that 
they  make  the  forest  echo  to  their  frightful  cries,  and  it  appears 
they  sometimes  have  recourse  to  this  howling  to  alarm  their  ene- 
mies. These  monkeys  are  very  common  in  the  great  forests  of 
Brazil. 

25.  The  ATELES,  (Plate  I,  fig.  8.)  are  the  Sapajous  in  which 
the  thumbs  are  wanting  on  the  anterior  extremities. 

26.  Most  of  the  SAKIS  or  Sagouins  live  in  shrubberies,  and  are 
less  active  than  the  preceding. 

Some  species  never  quit  their  retreat  except  about  twilight, 
and  there  are  some  that  are  altogether  nocturnal  in  their  habits. 

FAMILY  OF  OUISTITIS. 

27.  This  little  group  which  is  nearly  related  to  the  family  of 
monkeys,  and  which  for  a  long  time  was  confounded  with  it,  is 
peculiar  to  the  new  world,  and  yet,  the  Ouistitis  differ  less  from 
the  monkeys  of  the  old  continent  than  from  those  of  America : 
in  fact,  like  these  last,  they  have  but  twenty  molar  teeth.     The 
Ouistitis  are  small,  agreeable  looking  animals,  with  a  round  head, 
flat  face,  lateral  nostrils,  without  either  callosities  or  cheek-pouches, 
and  a  bushy  tail  which  is  not  prehensile.  (Plate  \,fig.  10.)  On  the 
anterior  extremities  their  thumbs  are  scarcely  opposable   to  the 
other  fingers ;  and  all  their  fingers,  except  the  thumb  of  the 
posterior  extremities,  are  armed  with  compressed  nails  which  are 
pointed  like  claws ;  by  the  aid  of  these  nails  they  climb  trees 
like  squirrels,  for,  the  conformation  of  their  hands  does  not  per- 
mit them  to  seize  hold  of  branches  like  monkeys,  to  which  the 
name  of  Q,uadrumana  is  much  more  applicable.     They  live  upon 
trees  and  are  reputed  to  be  gay,  capricious,  irascible  and  always 
in  motion. 

FAMILY  OF  MAKIS. 

28.  The  animals  which  belong  to  this  family  have  the  four 
thumbs  well  developed  and  opposable  to  the  other  fingers ;  but, 

25.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Ateles? 
'26.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Sakis  ? 

27.  What  peculiarities  characterise  the  Ouistitis?     Have  they  callosities  ? 
What  is  the  position  of  t1  eir  nostrils  ?  What  is  the  character  of  their  nails 

28.  How  a--o  the  Mak  s  distinguished  from  other  monkeys  ? 


ORDER  CARNARIA.  41 


generally  they  differ  from  the  monkeys  and  the  Owstitis  in  their 
form,  which  more  resembles  that  of  the  carnaria,  and  in  the  dis- 
position or  number  of  their  teeth.  They  are  readily  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  pointed  or  raised  nail  on  the  first  or  two 
first  toes,  or  fingers  of  the  posterior  extremities,  while  the  nails 
of  the  rest  of  the  fingers  are  flat.  ( Plate  \.fig.  12  ) 

29.  This  family  is  composed  of  several  genera  designated  under 
the  names  of  Makis  properly  so  called  (Lemur  of  Cuvier,)  Loris, 
Tarsius,  &c. 

30.  The  Makis  properly  so  called, ( Plate  1 ,  /?<?.  II.) exclusively 
inhabit  the  island  of  Madagascar,  where  they  seem  in  a  manner 
to  take  the  place  of  monkeys.      They  are  called,  on  account 
of  the  pointed  shape  of  their  heads,  fox- headed,   or   fox-nosed 
monkeys.     The  inhabitants  of  the  southern  parts  of  Madagascar 
tame  and  train  them  for  hunting,  as  we  do  the  dog. 


LESSON    V. 

ORDER  CARNARIA. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  their 
organization. — Division  into  families. — Family  of  Cheirop- 
tera.— Zoological  charac.ers. —  Tribe  of  Bats. — Peculiarities 
of  organization. — Habits.  —  Fnigivorous  Bats,  (example,  the 
Ronssette)  — Insectivorous  Bats,  (example,  Vespertilio,  Oreillard) 
—  Tribe  of  Galeopithecvs, 

FAMILY  OP  INSECTIVORA. — Zoological  characters. — Organization 
and  habits  of  the  Hedge-hog.— The  Shrew,  and  the  Mole. 


ORDER     CARNARIA. 

1.  This  great  division  of  the  class  of  mammalia  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  predatory  animals.    Bears  and  other  mammals  which 
possess  nearly  the  same  organization,  are  ranged  under  this  head. 

2.  The  characters  which  distinguish  the  Carnaria,  are,  being 
unguiculated  like  the  Bimana  and  Qluadrumana,  having  the  mouth 
armed  with  three  kinds  of  teeth,  and  like  them,  being  "born  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  in  not  having  a  pouch  for  the  lodgement  of 
their  young,   and  not  having  the  thumb  opposable  to  the  other 
fingers  as  in  the  two  preceding  orders. 

29.  Does  the  family  of  Makis  contain  more  than  one  genus? 

30.  In   what  part  of  the  world  are  the  Makis,  properly  so  called,  found  .' 
Can  tho  Makis  be  trained  for  any  purpose  ? 

1.  What  kind  of  ani-nals  compose  the  order  Carnaria  ? 
2    Whit  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  the  Carnaria  ? 

O 


12  ORDER  CARNARIA. 


3.  From  the  mode  of  life  followed  by  most  of  these  animals, 
it  might  be  anticipated  that  their  intestinal  canal  would    be  less 
voluminous  and  shorter  than  it  is  in  those  mammiferous  animals 
which  are  nourished  by  vegetable  substances  exclusively.     The 
Carnaria,  to  seize  and  devour  their  prey,  which  generally  strug- 
gles against  them,  require  considerable    strength  in  their  jaws  ,- 
Therefore,  the  muscles  which  bring  them  together  are  very  volum- 
inous, giving  to  the  heads  of  these  animals  very  considerable  size. 
In  general,  these  organs  are  very  short,  and  the  manner  of  articu- 
lation of  their  lower  jaw  bone  with  the  cranium,  shows  that  their 
teeth  are  designed  either  to  cut  flesh  or  to  crush  insects,  but  not 
to  grind  herbs  or  roots :  the  articulation  is  transverse  in  its  direc- 
tion, and  is  as  compact  as  a  hinge,  so  as  to  prevent  lateral  motion, 
and  only  permits  the  mouth  to  open  and  shut,  like  a  pair  of  scissors. 

4.  These  animals  differ  very  much  from  each  other  in  their 
forms  and  in  their  mode  of  living.     They  are  divided  into  three 
great  families,  to  wit ;  the  Cheiroptera,  the  Insectivora  and  the 
Carnivora,  the  distinctive  characters  of  which  are  set  down  in  the 
following  table : 

(Families.) 

Having  a  species  of  wings,  formed  by  a  foil") 
of  skin,  which  commencing  from  the  sides  of  the  | 
neck,  extends  between  their  four  extremities,  and  V  Cheiroptera. 


Order 


their  fingers.     Molar    teeth,    either   flat   on  the 


of        ^  crown,  or  armed  w  th  points. 


without  wings  (  Molar  teeth,  armed  with  coni- 


Insectivora. 


CARNARIA 


I  I     tlnff- 

FAMILY  OF  CHEIROPTERA. 

5.  Most  of  the  Cheiroptera  are  organized  for  flying  rather  than 
walking;  indeed,  in  these  mammiferous  animals,  and  even  in 
tnose  that  have  not  true  wings,  there  exists,  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  a  species  of  great  sail  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  skin,  which 
extends  from  the  neck  to  the  hind  -feet,  and  which  extended  and  set 

3.  In  what  respect  does  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  Carnaria  differ  from 
the  intestinal  canal  of  animals  that  live  exclusively  on  vegetables?  Why 
are  the  jaws  and  teeth  of  the  Carnaria  very  strong  ?  What  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  articulation  of  the  jaw  ? 

4.  Do  animal*  which  belong  to  the  order  Carnaria  differ  much  from  each 
other?     Into  what  fimilies  is  the  order  Carnaria  divided?     What  are   the 
peculiarities  of  the  Cheiroptera?     What  is  the  character  of  their  molar 
teeth  '! 

What  are  the  characters  of  the  Insectivora?  What  is  the  character  of 
their  molar  teeth  ? 

Wh  it  is  the  character  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Carnivora? 

5.  For  wh  it  kind  of  progression   is  the  organization  of  the  Cheiroptera 
best  adapted  ?     Do  all  the  Cheiroptera  possess  wings  ? 


TRIBE  OF  BATS.  43 


- 

of 
th 

I  J1  '-ti 


in  motion  by  the  limbs  of  the  animal,  performs  the  office  of  a  para- 
chute, by  the  help  of  \vhich  he  is  enabled  to  sustain  himself  in  the 
air.  when  he  springs  from  an  elevated  point.  (Plate  2,  jig.  I,  and  7.) 

6.  All  these  animals  are  not  equally  well  organized  for  flight, 
and  on  this  account,  they  may  be  divided  into  tribes,  as  follows  . 

(Tribesv  - 

f      Having    wings,   (formed    by    a    mem-^j 
I   brane    which  is  sustained  by   excessively  ^  Bat. 

Family         |  long  fingers.)  J 

of  -^        Having  parachutes,    (formed   by  a  fold  "j 

CHEIROPTERA        of  skin  on  the  sides  which  extends  between  1 
limbs,    but  a  very  litde  amongst  the  f 
1  '-tigers,  (toes)  which  are  short.  J 

Tribe  of  Bats. 

7.  These  singular  animals,   (Plate  2,  Jig.  1,  and  2.)  seem  at 
first  sight,  to  partake  as  much  of  the  bird  as  of  the  mammiferous 
animal,  for,  like  the  first,  they  are  provided   with  strong  wings, 
and  are  organised  for  flying  in  the  air,  rather  than    walking  on 
the  ground;  but  if  we  examine  the  structure  of  their  body  with 
more  attention,  we  perceive  that,  in  reality,  it  differs  only  in   a 
very  slight  degree  from  that  of  the  ordinary  mammalia,  and  these 
anomalies  chiefly  depend  upon  the  extreme  elongation  of  all  parts 
of  their  anterior  extremities.     The  wings  of  the  Bats  are  in  fact, 
nothing    else    than    these  extremities,  in  which   all  the  bones, 
those  of  the  fingers  particularly,  have  become  very  long,  and  serve 
to  sustain  a  prolongation  of  tne  skin  of  the  flanks,  just  as  the 
whale-bones  of  an  umbrella  serve  to  sustain  the  silk  or  cotton 
of  which  it  is  made.     {Plate  2.  fig.  3.  —  a.  Ike  humcrus,  —  b.  the 
fore  arm.  —  c.  the  thumb.  —  d.  the.  other  finqers.} 

8.  These  organs  are  not  designed  for  aerial  locomotion  alone, 
like  the  wings  of  birds:  when  folded,  they  also  serve  the  animal 
for  creeping  or  suspending  itself  from    some   projecting  body, 
(Plate  2,y?#.  2  )  and,  for  this  purpose,  they  have  a  free  thumb, 
which  is  short  and  armed  with  a  hooked  nail,  like  that  of  most 
other    mammals,    while    the    rest   of  their   fingers,  which   are 
elongated  beyond  measure,  lose  their  last  phalanges  as  well  as 
the  nails,  and  are  enveloped  in  a    fold  of  skin,  which  extends 
from  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  posterior  extremities,  or  even  to 
the  tail. 

6.  Are  all  the  Cheiroptera  equally  well  organised  for  flight?     How  is  this 
family  divided  ?     What  are  the  organic    characters  of  the  tribe    of  Bats  ? 
What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  Galcopilhecua  7 

7.  In  what  do  Bats  resemble  birds  ?  In  what  do  the  Bats  differ  from  other 
mammalia?     How  do  the  wings  of  Bits  differ  from  the  anterior  extremities 
of  the  mammalia  ? 

8    Do  the  wings  of  Bats  serve  any  other  purpose  than  that  of  locomotion  7 


44  TRIBE  OF  BATS. 


9.  The  posterior  or  abdominal  extremities  preserve  their  ordi- 
nary dimensions,  and  are  very  feeble :  the  hind  feet  are  free  and 
provided  with  five  small  toes  of  equal  size,  terminated  with  hooked 
nails. 

10.  The  progression  or  walk   of  these  animals  is  extremely 
laborious,  and  is  effected  by  a  series  of  oblique  tumbles,   which 
fatigues  them  very  much ;  they  never  have  recourse  to  this  mode 
of  progression,  except  when  they  are  forced.     When  they   wish 
to  change  place,  they  effect  it  by  flying,  and  when  they  wish  to 
repose,  they  hook  themselves  to  some  projecting  body  from  which 
they  can  readily  make  their  spring. 

11.  Bats  belong  to  those  nocturnal  animals   that    avoid  the 
light;    during   the   day   they    sleep   concealed   in    caverns,   or 
some  other  obscure  place,  and  do  not  sally  forth  till  the  dusk  of 
the  evening.    In  winter  they  fall  into  a  lethargic  sleep,  which  often 
lasts  during  the  cold  season.     Their  eyes  are  exceedingly   small, 
but  their  ears  are  often  very   large,   and   the  species   of   tact 
which  they  exercise  through  the  medium  of  the  membranous  sur- 
face of  their  wings,  is  so  exquisite,  that  they  can  direct  their 
course  through  all  the  nooks  of  their  labyrinths,  even  after  their 
eyes  have  been  removed,  and  simply  by  the  different  impressions 
received  from  the  air. 

12.  The  diet  of  these  animals  is  various ;    all   do  not  feed  on 
animal  substances,  as  might  be  believed,  from  the  name  of  the 
class  to  which  they  belong.     Some  are  frugivorous,  and  others 
insectivorous. 

13.  The  FRUGIVOROUS  BATS,  have  molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns, 
(Plate  2,  fig.  6.)  and  the  second  finger  of  the  fore- paw  armed 
with  a  nail,  like  the  thumb ;  as  yet  they  have  been  only  found  in 
India,  and  are  designated  under  the  generic  name  of  Roussettes. 
One  species  of  these  Bats,  (the  black  Roussette,)  has  wings  which, 
when  expanded,  extend  about  four  feet,  and,  to  protect  the  fruits 
from   its  devastations,  they  are  sometimes  obliged  to  cover  the 
trees  with  nets. 

1 4.  The  INSECTIVOROUS  BATS,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  crown  of 
the  molar  teeth  studded  with  conical   points   which  dovetail  into 
each  other.  (  rlute  2.  fiy.  5.)     They  also  differ  from  the  preced- 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  abdominal  extremities  of  Bats  ? 

10.  What  is  the  mode  of  progression  of  Bats? 

11.  Are  Bats   fond   ofli<jht?     Are   their   eyes  I;rge?     Have  they  very 
email  ears  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  surface  of  their  wings  ? 

12.  What  is  the  gen»ral  diet  of  Bats  ? 

13.  What  are  th>-  characters  of  thu  fru  ivorous  B.;ts?  In  what  pait  of  tho 
world  are  these  Bats  found  ?     What  is  the  Ruussette  ? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  o"  the  molar  t  eth  of  the  In  ectivoroue  Bats      m 
*hat  renpect  do  these  B;its  diff  r  fro>n  others  / 


INSECTIVOROUS   MAMMALS. 


ing  in  many  other  characteristic  particulars,  such  as  the  absence 
of  the  nail  on  the  index  finger.  Of  these  animals  a  great  many 
species  are  known. 

15.  Among  those  of  France,  we  may  cite;    1st.  the    Vesperti 
//os,  or   ordinary  bats,  which  have  the  ears  separated,  and  of 
moderate  size,  and  the  nose  without  foliaceous,  or  leaf  appendix, 
(by  which  several  species  are  distinguished,  namely,  the  common 
bat,  the  Serotinus,  Pipistrellus,  fyc.) 

16.  2nd.  The  Long-eared  bats,  (Oreillards)  —  Vespcrtilio  Ami- 
tm  —  {Plate  %)  fig.   I,  and  2.)  whose  immense  ears  are  united 
together  upon  the  cranium,  (the  common  species  found  in  kitchens, 
houses,  &c.,  in  France.) 

17.  3d.  The  Rhinolophus,  or  Horse-shoe  Bats,  which  may  be 
easily  distinguished  by   the   foliaceous   membranes    and   crests 
which  are  fixed  on  the  nose,  altogether  presenting  the  figure  of 
a  horse-shoe,  are  found  in  quarries. 

18.  In  South  America  there  is  a  Bat,  a  foot  long,  which   has 
the  habit  of  sucking  the  blood  of  other  animals    while  they  are 
asleep;  it  is  known  under  the  name  of  Vampire,  (Plate  2,  fig.  4.) 
and  placed  in  the  genus  Phyl/ostoma, 

There  are  also  several  species  in  the  United  States. 

Tribe  of  Guleopithccits, 

19.  These  animals   are   mentioned  by  travellers,  under   the 
names  of  flying  monkeys,  and  flying  foxes,  flying  cats,  &c.     They 
inhabit  the  Indian    archipelago,  and  have  the  four  extremities 
formed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  united  by  a  prolongation  o, 
skin,  which  extends  from  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  tail,  form- 
ing a  great  parachute,  by  the  assistance  of  which  these  Cheirop- 
tera  sustain  themselves  for  a  short  time  in  the  air,  when  they 
spring  from  one  branch  to  another.  (Plate  2.  fig.  7.)  They  live 
upon  trees  and  feed  upon  fruits. 

FAMILY  OF  INSFCTIVORA 

20.  This  family  is  composed  of  Carnaria,  whose  molar  teeth 
are    studded  with    conical  points    like    those    of  most  of  the 
Cheiroptera,   but  the   skin  of  their  flanks  is  not  prolonged  so  as 
to  form  either  wings  or  parachutes.     These  are  feeble  animals  of 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Vespertilios? 

16.  How  are  the  long-earrd  B  ts  characterised  ? 
17-  What  characters  distinguish  the  Rhinolophus  ? 

18.  What  is  the  Vampire?     Are  there  any  Bats  in  the  United  States? 

19.  How  are  animals  of  the   tribe   Galeopithecus   distinguished  ?     Ha/a 
these  animals  wings  ?     What  is  their  diet? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  molar  teeih  of  the  insectivora  ?    Have 
animals  of  this  family  wings?  What  are  the  habits  of  these  animaU  <   Wha» 
in  their  cict  ? 

02 


INSECTIVOROUS  MAMMALS 


small  stature,  which,  during  the  day,  conceal  themselves  in  bur- 
rows or  holes,  from  which  they  sally  forth  only  at  night  Many 
of  them  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy ;  as  their  name  in- 
dicates, they  live  chiefly  upon  insects. 

21.  The  principal  genera  composing  this  family  are  the  hedge- 
hogs, shrews,  and  moles  which  are  recognisable  by  the  following 
characters : 


Family 

of 
INSECTIVORA. 


Walker,,  (anterior  ]  Body  covered  i 
paws  of  the  ordinary  J  with  .pirn*  { 
form  and  ^rmed  with  , 

J  with  hair.  { 

Diggers,  (posterior  paws  of  a  peculiar  "| 
form,  and  armed  with  very  long  nails,  I 
suitable  for  excavating,  or  digging  the  [ 
earth. 


(Genera.) 
Hedgehogs. 

Shrew*. 


Mules 


22.  The  HEDGEHOGS, — Erinaceus,  —are  small  animals,  which, 
without  having  the  instinct  to  excavate  burrows  inaccessible  to 
their  enemies,  without  the  activity  necessary  to  escape  their  pur- 
suit, or  strength  to  contend  against  them,  are  nevertheless  capa- 
ble of  advantageously  protecting  themselves  and  punishing  any 
imprudent  attack  of  their  adversaries ;  but  to  give  them  this  power, 
nature  has  formed  for  them  no  new  organs,  but  has  merely  modi- 
f  f  d  the  hairs  with  which  their  backs  are  covered,  and  given  a 
greater  extent  to  certain  of  their  movements,  than  is  common  in 
other  quadrupeds.  By  flexing  the  head  and  paws  beneath  the 
belly,  the  Hedgehog  can  roll  itself  into  a  ball,  and  it  also  has  the 
faculty  of  drawing  the  skin  of  the  back  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
envelope  itself,  as  in  a  purse;  now,  the  hairs  with  which  this  part 
of  the  tegumentary  envelope  is  furnished,  in  stead  of  being  flexible 
and  silky,  are  stout,  stiff,  and  sharp,  and,  when  the  skin  is  thus 
drawn,  the  spines  are  raised  up,  crossing  each  other  in  every  direc- 
tion, bristling  all  parts  of  the  animal's  surface  like  so  many  spines  or 
spears  ready  to  lacerate  and  tear  the  mouth  and  paws  of  the 
aggressor.  This  powerfully  defensive  armour  protects  the  Hedge- 
hogs from  the  attacks  of  most  of  the  Carnaria,  of  which,  with- 
out it,  they  would  become  the  ready  victims  ;  foxes  however,  are 
not  deterred  by  these  obstacles,  and  are  often  successful  in 
seizing  this  dangerous  prey.  Their  mouth  is  armed  with  twenty 

21.  What  are  the  principal  genera  composing  this  family  ?  What  ;ire  the 
organic  characters  of  the  genus  Hrdgehog?  What  are  the  characters  of 
the  Shrews?  How  are  I  he  Moles  distinguished  ? 

ii2.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Hedgehog?  What  is  the  number  c«f 
their  teeth?  How  are  they  arranged?  What  are  their  habits  ? 


CARNIVOROUS  MAMMALS.  47 

teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  sixteen  in  the  lower  jaw.  They  live 
in  the  woods  and  keep  themselves  concealed  during  the  d.-jy 
amongst  the  roots  of  old  trees.  They  are  frequently  met  with  in 
France,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  ll  is  said  they  mouse 
like  a  cat. 

23.  Shrews — Sorex — (Plate  2,  fig  9.)  are  very  small  animals 
whose  appearance  reminds  us  of  the  mouse ;  their  body  is  covered 
with  hairs,  and  on  each  flank  there  is  found  a  small  strip  of  stiff' 
bristles  between  which  there  exudes  an  odorous  humor.     They 
have  eighteen  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  twelve  in  the  lower  jaw. 
They  keep  themselves  in  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the  earth, 
and  feed  on   worms  and  insects.     The  common  Shrew,  (sorex 
araneus)  has  been  accused,  but  very  wrongfully,  of  causing  a 
disease  in  horses  and  mules  by  its  bite.     Shrews  are  found  in 
Asia,  the  north  of  Europe,  &c. 

24.  The  MOLES,—  Tal pa,— (Plate  2,  fiy.  10.)  are  essentially 
subterraneous,  and  burrowing   animals ;    their    body   is    squat, 
their  muzzle  elongated  and  terminated    by  a  moveable  snout, 
serving  to  penetrate  the  earth,  and  their  anterior  extremities, 
very  short,  but  extremely  strong  and  thick,  are  directed  out- 
wardly, and  terminate  by  enormous  nails,  suitable  for  digging. 
(Plate  2,  %.  11  )     By  the  assistance  of  these  organs,  moles  dig 
with  great  rapidity  and  admirable  skill,  long   galleries  in    the 
soil  in  the  midst  of  which  they  establish  their  abode.     The  small 
elevations   we  often  see  upon  the   surface  of  the    soil,   called 
mole  /M//.V,  are  formed  by  the  riddance  which  these  animals  throw 
out  when  executing  their  subterranean  labors.    They  very  rarely 
leave  their  labyrinths,  and  feed  on  the  worms   and  larvae  of  in- 
sects found  there.     They  are  destined,  as  we  have  seen,  to  live 
in  total  darkness;  hence,  their  eyes  are  scarcely  perceptible,  and 
there  is  one  species  of  mole  which  is  entirely  blind.     They  have 
twenty-two  teeth  in  each  jaw.     The  common  mole  of  the  fields  of 
France,  which   is  of  a  beautiful  black,  is  found  in  all  the  fertile 
countries  of  Europe.     It  is  said,  they  do  not  exist  in  Ireland,  and 
are  rarely  met  with  in  Greece.      There  are  varieties  of  moles 
which  are  brown,  white,  ash-colored  and  spotted. 


23.  What  are  Shrews  ?  What  is  the  numher  and  disposition  of  their  teeth? 
What  are  their  h.tbits  ?  In  what  purls  of  the  world  are  they  found  ?  What 
is  their  food  ? 

24  V\  hat  are  Moles?  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  their  organization? 
What  are  tht  ir  habits  ?  Have  moles  very  large  eyes  ?  Is  there  any  specie* 
of  Mole  that  is  blind  ?  What  is  the  number  and  arrangement  of  their  teeth? 
In  what  countries  ure  tin  y  found? 


V   *%_ 


Or 


48  CARNIVOROUS  MAMMALS. 


LESSON    VI. 

FAMILY  OP  CARNIVORA. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of 
organization. — Division  into  three  tribes. 

THIBB  OP  PLANTIGRADA. — Zoological  characters. — Organization 
and  Habits  of  Bears,  (Brown  Bear,  White  Bear,  Black 
/3car.) — Badgers. —  Use  of  their  hnir. 

TRIBE  OP  DIGITIGRADAS. — Zoological  characters. — Group  of  Ver- 
miform Digit  igradas. — Histo>y  of  the  Poli'-cat9( common  Pole- 
cat, ferret,  Weasel,  Ermine.) — The  Martens,  (common.  Ma»- 
ten,  the  Beech  Marien,  Sable.) — The  Otters,  (common  Otter, 
Sea  Otter.) — Genus  of  Dogs — History  and  Habits  of  some 
races,  (  Wolves,  Foxes.) — Genus  of  Civets  (Civet,  Common 
Wild-cat,  llanpouste  of  Egypt.)  —  Genus  of  Hyenas. —  Genus 
of  Cats. — Habits,  (Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard,  Couguar, Lynx,  Cat.) 

TRIBE  OP  AMPHIBIA. — Zoological  characters. — Habits,  (Seal,  the 

Morse.) 

CONTINUATION   OF    THE    ORDER   CARNARIA. 

FAMILY  OF  CARNIVORA. 

1 .  In  its  most  general  acceptation,  the  word  Carnivorous  belongs 
to  all  animals  that  feed  upon  flesh,  but   naturalists  give  to  this 
word,  a  more  limited  signification,  and  only  apply  it  to  this  family 
of  mammalia  of  the  order  Carnaria,  which  includes  Bats,  Hyenas, 
Martens,  Dogs,  &c.,  and  which  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
istence of  teeth  for  tearing  and  cutting  flesh. 

2.  In  these  animals,  which  generally  possess  great  strength,  the 
jaws  are  stout,  and  each  one  is  armed  with  two  long,  stout,  sepa- 
rated canine  teeth,  and  between  these  are  placed  six  incisors. 
Sometimes  the  molar  teeth  are  all  trenchant ;  sometimes  they  are 
mingled,  some  having  blunt  tubercles,  but  they  never  have  coni- 
cal points  as  in  the  insectivora.  (Plate  2,  fig.   12  )     One  of  the 
great  molars  is  ordinarily  much  larger  and  more  trenchant  than 
the  others,  and  bears  the  name  of  carnivorous  tooth,  (Plate  2,  fig. 
12,  ca.)    behind  it  are  one  or  two,  almost  flat,  which  are  called 
tuberculous,  (Plate  2,  Jig.  12,  t.)  and  between  it  and  the  canines, 
a  variable  number  of  false  molars.     The  form  and  disposition  of 
these  teeth  are  in  relation  to  the  more  or  less  carnivorous  habits 

1.  How  is  the  term  Carnivorous  applied  ?     By  what  means  can  we  re- 
cognise  the  Carnivora? 

2.  What  is  the  posHon  of  the  canine  teeth  in  the  Carnivora  ?     What  is 
the  number  of  their  incisor  teeth?     What   is  the  character  of  tl\eir   molar 
teeth  ? 

What  is  the  carnivorous  tno'h?  What  is  meant  by  tuberculous  tooth? 
What  is  i he  form  and  disposition  of  these  teeth?  Can  we  judge  of  the 
Uature  oi'  the  diet  of  a  carnivorous  animal  by  the  teeth  ?  How  ? 


PLANTIGRADE  MAMMALS. 


of  these  animals.  Those  that  live  most  exclusively  on  prey  have 
the  teeth  most  trenchant  and  the  jaws  shortest,  (which  increases 
their  power,)  while  those  that  feed  on  vegetable  substances  as 
well  as  on  flesh,  have  the  molars  for  the  most  part  tuberculous;  by 
the  proportion  of  these  trenchant  and  tuberculous  teeth,  we  can 
judge  of  the  more  or  less  carnivorous  nature  of  their  diet. 

3.  Animals  of  this  family  generally  have  the  paws  armed  with 
hooked  nails,  suitable  for  holding  or  even  tearing   their  prey ;  it 
is  to  be  remarked  also,  that  they  are  almost  entirely  without 
clavicles ;  but  the  form  of  their  extremities  varies  a  great  deal, 
and  is  in  relation  to  the  difference  in  their  mode  of  progression, 
which  is  not  less  great.     According  to  these  characters  the  car- 
nivora  are  divided  into  the  three  following  tribes ;  Pfatttiyrnda, 
Dig  ilia  fada*  and  Amphibia. 

(Tribes.) 

f     F<  et  resting  their  whole  "1 
f          Having  feet  I  le.-igth    on  the  earth,  the  i 
formed  specially  |  ?ol  s    of  which  arc   free  | 
for  progression,    j  fr.  m  h  ir. 

Feet  n;  t  touching  the  "| 
ea:  tli  except  by  the  ends  of  ' 

CARNIVORA.  4  the  toes;  the  tarsus  being  j 

^elevated  in  progression.      J 
Having  feet  in  the  form  of  paddi'S,  so  "| 
short  and  so  enveloped   in  the  skin,  that  on   1  . 

land,  they  can  only    crawl;    but  they    are  f 
excellent  swimmers.  J 

Tribe  of    Plantigrada. 

4.  It  is  the  zoological  character  of  this  tribe  to  have  .five  toes 
on  all  the  feet,  and,  when  the  animal  walks  or  stands,   to  rest 
the  entire  sole  upon  the  earth,  (Mate  2,  fig    13,  and  14.)  which 
affords  him  a  broad  base  of  support,  and  greater  facility  of  stand- 
ing up  on  his  hind  feet. 

5.  All  the  motions  of  the  Plantigrades  are  dull.     Like  the  in- 
sectivora,  they  are  subterraneous  and  nocturnal  in  their   habits, 
and  in  cold  countries  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  or 
hibernation.     The   most  remarkable  genera  of  this  tribe  are  the 
Bears,  Rackoons,  Badgers,  and  Gluttons,  which  may  be  recog- 
nised by  the  following  characters : 

3.  What  kind  of  nails  have  the  carnivora  1     What  kind  of  clavicles  have 
animals  of  this  family?     Is   the  form    of  tlnir   extremities  the  sail. e  in  all 
animals  of  ihis  cl.iss?     How  is  t-  is  family  divided? 

KT(Answered  in  the  table.)  Whnt  are  the  organic  characters  that  <?i-tin- 
gtiish  ani  nals  of  the  tribe  ot  Plantigrade  ?  What  distinguishes  the  Digiti. 
grada  ?  Wh.il  is  the  lorm  of  the  extremities  of  the  Amphit  ia? 

4.  What  is  the  zoological  character  of  the  Piantiyrada  'I 

5.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Plat  ligrada  7     What  are  the  m&st  remark*. 
Tie  genera  of  this  t  ibe? 


50  GENUS  OF  BEARS. 


(Genera.) 

No  well  characterised  carnivorous  tooth  in  the  upper "| 
jaw,  but    a   small    one    in  the  lower  jaw  ;    three  large  I          „ 
tuberculous    molars    on    each    side,    in    each  jaw ;    tail  J 
very  short.  j 

Two  tuberculous   teeth,   pre-  ^ 
ceded   by  three     false     molars;  i-  Rackoont* 
lm;.te.  J 


One  large  trenchant 
carnivorous-  tooth    in 
jaw,Jbllowed  by 


muzzle  short ;  toes  not  pah 

f  Very  large  in  the  1 
upper,  and  small  j 
I  in  the  lower  jaw;  1 
tail    short;    toes  f 
One  tuber-  -|  united  by  a 


culous    tooth 


nar- 
row membrane. 
Small   in   both 


jaws;  tail  of  me-  >  Gluttons. 
Indium  length.  J 

6.  BEARS  are  large  animals  with  stout  bodies,  thick  extremi- 
ties and  short  tail;  their  gait  is  very  dull,  but  they  possess  pro- 
digious strength  and  considerable  intelligence.  The  formation  of 
their  extremities,  little  adapted  for  running,  enables  them  to  keep 
erect  on  their  hind  feet,  and  quickly  climb  trees,  which  they 
embrace  between  their  paws.  Some  of  them  are  also  very  good 
swimmers,  and  they  are  indebted  for  this  quality,  in  a  measure,  to 
the  quantity  of  fat  with  which  their  bodies  are  loaded.  Of  all 
the  carnivora,  their  organization  least  requires  them  to  feed  on 
flesh,  and  their  diet  is  least  carnivorous ;  in  fact,  the  structure  of 
their  teeth,  almost  entirely  tuberculous,  is  more  favourable  for 
grinding  roots  and  fruits  than  for  tearing  and  cutting  flesh  ;  hence, 
they  are  omnivorous.  They  eat  both  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances ;  but  the  last  constitute  their  habitual  food.  They  love 
roots  and  fruits,  but  have  a  most  decided  preference  for  honey, 
which  they  will  seek  in  the  midst  of  a  hive  without  much  regard- 
ing the  sting  of  the  bees,  being  protected  by  the  hard  skin  and 
thick  hair  with  which  they  are  covered. 

7  Most  of  the  bears  live  in  great  forests,  but  there  is  one 
species  that  inhabits  the  coasts  and  ice  of  the  polar  seas.  The 

\£T(Answercd  in  the  table.}  What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  the 
genus  of  Bears?  What  is  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth  ?  Are  their  car- 
nivorous  t^eth  large? 

How  are  the  teeth  of  Rackoons  arranged?  Are  their  toes  united  by  a 
membrane?  How  many  carnivorous  teeth  hnve  they  in  each  jaw  ? 

How  are  the  teeth  of  B  idgers  arranged  ?  Have  they  carnivorous  teeth  7 
How  many  tuberculous  teeth  have  they  ?  Have  they  long  tails  ?  Are  they 
palm-tie  ? 

In  what  r<  spect  do  the  t  eth  of  Gluttons  differ  from  those  of  Badgers? 
Have  Gluttons  any  tiil? 

6.  What  are  be  irs?  Are  they  swil  runners  ?  Do  ihey  swim  well  ?  Can 
•.hey  climb?  What  do  they  feed  on?  What  are  thty  particularly  fond  of 
7.  What  are  the  habits  of  Bear*  ?  How  do  they  pass  the  winter  ? 


GENUS  OF  BEARS.  51 


first  establish  their  abodes  in  caverns  or  in  dens,  which  they  dig 
with  their  strong  and  hooked  nails ;  in  winter  they  sleep  in  their 
retreats,  and  when  the  cold  is  severe,  pass  the  whole  of  this 
season  in  a  profound  lethargy.  During  the  period  of  hibernation 
they  take  no  nourishment,  but  seem  to  depend  upon  the  fat,  with 
which  they  abound  in  the  autumn,  for  their  existence;  so  that 
when  they  leave  their  retreats  they  are  extremely  thin. 

Prudence  is  the  chief  feature  in  the  character  of  the  bear. 
Whenever  he  can,  he  retires  from  what  he  is  unacquainted  with, 
and  when  forced  to  approach  it,  he  does  so  very  slowly,  and  with 
great  circumspection ;  yet  he  does  not  want  courage,  and  does 
not  seem  to  be  susceptible  of  fear.  He  is  never  known  to  run ; 
he  opposes  strength  to  strength,  and  when  his  life  is  threatened, 
or  his  young  in  danger,  his  fury  and  his  efforts  become  terrible. 

The  fur  of  these  animals  is  thick  and  composed  of  long  shining 
hair ;  it  is  much  sought,  and  forms  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce. In  the  winter  and  in  the  coldest  countries,  it  is  most 
beautiful ;  therefore,  it  is  at  this  season  they  are  most  actively 
hunted.  Most  of  the  bear  skins  used  are  from  the  north  of  Russia 
and  America.  Since  they  have  been  employed  for  making  or 
adorning  military  caps,  three  or  four  thousand  are  annually  con- 
sumed in  France. 

Bears  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  every  latitude, 
except  South  Africa  and  Australia.  There  are  several  species, 
the  chief  of  which  are  : 

8.  1st    The  Krown  Bear—Ursns  Arctos;  it  is  this  species  that 
the  mountebanks  in  France  train  for  their   exhibitions.     This 
animal  may  attain  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet ;  his  height,  when 
standing  on  all  his  feet,  does  not  exceed  three  feet:  his  hair,  thick 
and  tufted,  except  on  the  muzzle  and  paws  where  it  is  black,  is 
chestnut  brown  on  the  shoulders,  back,  thighs,  and  legs;  yellowish 
on  the  sides  of  the  head,  ears,  and  flanks.     It  is  common  in  the 
Alps,  and  is  found  in  all  the  high  mountains  and  great  forests  of 
Europe ;  it  lives  solitary,  and  ordinarily  does  not  attack  man  ex- 
cept when  provoked  ;  but  then  he  becomes  very  formidable,  and 
strives  to  crush  his  antagonist  beneath  his  feet,  or  strangle  him  in 
the  embrace  of  his  paws. 

9.  2d.  The  While  Be<ir—Ursii*  Mantimm—(P'ate%.  fi(j.  13.) 
is  easily  distinguished  by  his  form  and  by  the  colour  of  his  coat. 

8.  Describe  the  Brown  Be.ir?     In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 
What  are  its  habits  ? 

9.  How  do  you  distinguish  the  White  Beir?  In  what  parts  of  the  world 
is  ne  found  ?     Upon  wh  it  d  >es  he  feed  ?      In  what  p-irlicul  -ir  does  the  White 
Bear  d.ffer  m  his  habits  fro.n  all  other  bears?     How  does  the   White   Boa* 
"•iss  the  win'er ' 

5* 


R  A  CKOONS.— BADGERS. 


He  is  low  on  his  iegs  ;  his  body,  his  neck,  and  especially  his  head, 
are  more  elongated  than  in  any  other  species  of  this  genus ;  lastly, 
the  interior  of"  his  mouth  is  entirely  black.  This  animal  inhabits 
the  glacial  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere  ;  it  feeds  on  fishes, 
young  amphibia,  and  young  cetacea  ;  nevertheless,  he  is  not  essen- 
tially carnivorous,  and  can  very  well  be  brought  to  live  on  bread 
alone.  He  swims  and  dives  with  astonishing  facility.  White  bears 
are  sometimes  met  in  numerous  troops,  which  also  distinguishes 
them  from  the  other  bears  which  are  always  solitary;  but  these 
animals  resemble  each  other  in  requiring  a  retreat  in  winter.  For 
this  purpose  they  content  themselves  with  some  cleft  in  the  rocks  or 
even  in  a  mass  of  ice  ;  and  without  preparing  any  bed,  they  there 
Jie  down,  and  permit  themselves  to  be  buried  under  enormous 
masses  of  ice ;  they  pass  in  this  way  the  months  of  January  and 
February  in  a  true  lethargy. 

10.  3d.  The  Black  Bear— Ursiis  Jim ericanus — lives  in  forests, 
feeds  on  fruits    and  flesh,  is  skilful    in  fishing,  and  dwells    in 
the  hollows  of  living  trees.     It  is  found  in  all  the  northern  parts 
of  America.     In  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  elevated    regions  of 
the    Missouri,  there  is  another  species   which  is  much  larger, 
stronger,  and  fiercer:  it  is  called  the  Grizzly  Bear,  and   its  fur 
which  is  greyish,  is  much  esteemed. 

1 1.  The  RACKOONS— Procyon, — very  much  resemble  bears,  ex- 
cept that  they  have  a  Jong  tail ;  they  have  very  nearly  the  same 
habits  as  those  animals,  but  are  better  climbers  and  more  carnivo- 
rous; they  are  of  moderate  size,  and  inhabit  the  forests  of  America. 
There  is  one  species  which  is  curious  from  its  singular  habit  of 
never  eating  anything  without  previously  plunging  it  into  water. 

12.  The  BADGERS — Meles — are   nocturnal  animals,  having  a 
cringing  gait,  a  very  short  tail,  the  toes  very  much  enveloped  in 
the  skin,  and  are  particularly  distinguished  by  having  a  pouch 
situate  beneath  the  tail,  from   which  exudes  a  fatty,  foetid  oil. 
The  nails  on  their  fore  paws  being  very  long,  enables  them  to  dig 
with  great  effect.     Their  hair  is  long  and  silky. 

13.  The  common  Badyer,  —  Mtli8  Europea— which  inhabits  the 
temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  keeps  at  the  bottom 
of  an  oblique,  tortuous  hole,  is  of  the  stature  of  a  middle  sized 
dog.     The  length  of  its  hair  veils  its  legs,  so  that  its  body  seems 
to  be  raised  but  little  above  the  earth.     Formerly,  the  hunting  of 

10.  What  are  the  habit-  of  the  BLck  Bear  1     Where  is  it  found  ? 

11.  What  are  Rac-ki  ons  ? 
12    What  are  Badgers? 

13.  What  are  the  habits  of  tbe  common  Badtei  ?  What  parts  of  the 
world  do<s  it  inhabit  ?  Do^s  this  auirrru  live  in  holes?  IB  it  much  hunted  ' 
What  is  the  use  of  its  hair  ? 


PIGITIGRADE  MAMMALS. 53 

this  animal  was  more  followed  than  in  the  present  day,  and  now 
it  has  become  very  rare  in  France.  It  was  pursued  by  terrier 
iogs;  but  its  jaw.s,  armed  with  very  strong  teeth,  and  its  long  power- 
Ill  nails  enabled  it  to  resist  their  attacks  ;  it  inflicted  deep  wounds, 
and  defended  itself  with  all  its  arms,  lying  on  its  back.  Its  skin 
.s  employed  as  coarse  fur,  and  its  hair,  which  cannot  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  felt,  is  employed  for  making  shaving  and  other 
brushes 

14.  The  Gluttons— Guh— (Plate  2,  jig.  15.)  resemble  the  Bad- 
gers very  much,  but  are  more  carnivorous:  their  name  has  been 
derived  from  an  exaggerated  notion  of  the  voracity  of  one  species 
of  this  genus,  the  Glutton  of  the  North —  Ursus  Gulo — which  is 
said  to  be  very  cruel,  and  to  lie  in  ambush  upon  a  tree,  to  leap 
on  the  backs  of  large  animals  upon  which  it  preys. 

Tribe  of  Digitigrada. 

15.  The  animals  of  this  tribe  are  distinguished  by  the  confor- 
mation of  their  paws.     In  place  of  resting  the  entire  sole  of  the 
foot  on  the  ground  and  consequently  having  this  part  free  of  hair, 
they  walk  on  the  ends  of  their  toes  with  the  tarsus  raised,  and 
hence  their  gait  is  lighter,  and  their  speed  greater.     They  are 
more  exclusively  carnivorous  than  the  Plantigrades,  and  their 
taste  for  flesh  joined  with  their  fleetness  makes  them    essentially 
hunting  animals;  their  paws  are  almost  always  armed  with  power- 
ful nails  or  talons,  and  their  jaws  are  stout  and  their  molar  teeth 
almost  entirely  trenchant.  The  number  of  small  tuberculous  teeth 
which  are  found  in  the  back  of  the  mouth,  varies,  and  as  these 
differences  correspond  with  their  more  or  less  sanguinary  disposi- 
tion,  they   are  taken  as  the   basis  of  the  classification   of  the 
Di.intigrada: 

14.  What  are  Gluttons  ?     Wh  it  is  the  origin  of  their  name  ? 

15.  How  are  the    Digitigrade  animals   characterised?     How    are   they 
rl  s  rd? 

O"  (Questions  answered  by  the  table.}  What  are  the  kinds  and  number  of 
teeth  o''  the  Martens? 

What  is  th  •  character  of  their  nails?  What  are  the  kinds  and  number  of 
teeth  of  tSe  Polecat?  What  is  remarked  of  their  toes? 

How  does  the  Skunk  differ  from  the  Polecat  and  Marten? 

What  are  tho  peculiarities  of  the  Otter  ? 

What  ,  r    ihe  generic  characters  of  the  genus  Dog  ?  » 

I  i  what  dors  the  organization  of  the  Civet  differ  from  that  of  the  Dog  ? 
v  hat  are  the  organic  characters  of  the  Hyena  ? 

Wh  t  -ire  the  organic  characters  of  the  gunus,  Cat? 

How  many  tuberculous  teeth  has  the  Marten?  Polecat?  Skunk?  an) 
Otter?  What  number  of  tuberculous  teeth  have  Cats  and  Hyenas  behind 
Uu-  carnivorous  teeth  ? 

P 


CAKNIVORA  DIGITIGRADA. 


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S    5    0    < 

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3  »  =  2. 

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M*           CB     ^* 

S    IF 

2-      *i  3 

§  si- 

=•    |ar 

Two  tuherculous  | 
teeth  behind  the  car- 
nivorous  tooth  of  the-^ 
[  upper  jaw. 

One  tuberculous 
tooth  behind  each-< 

carnivorous  tooth. 

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BIGITIGRADE  MAMMALS. 55 

16.  These  different  genera  maybe  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  other  characters,  which  are  less  important  than  those  furnished 
by  the  teeth,  but  which  are  more  easily  remembered.  The  fol 
lowing  table  contains  a  synopsis  of  these  secondary  characters  : 

DlGITlGRADA. 

Having  the  nails 


S 
ot  I 
diggin 
Fal 
tec  th 
numbe 
Lon 
diggin 
d  by  a 
. 
. 
tail 
the  tail 


ff,  Are  tb«;re  any  other  characters  by  which  the  genera  of  the  Digit*- 
grude  *ninidls  may  be  distinguished? 


56  POLECATS. 


17.  The  Digitigrades  provided  with  a  single  tuberculous  tooth 
in  each  jaw,  form  A  SMALL  NATURAL  GROUP,  designated  under  the 
name   of  Vermiform    Cariiivoru,  on  account  of  their  long,  lank 
body,  and  short  legs.     They  have  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,   and 
exhale  an  odour  more  or  less  strong,  caused  by  a  liquid  which  is 
secreted  by  two  glands  situated  near  the  anus.     Although  of  small 
stature,  these  animals  are  very  sanguinary  ;  and  from  their  lank 
form,  they  can  pass  through  the  smallest  apertures ;  they  are 
divided,  as  we  have  already  seen,  into  Polecats,  Martens,  Skunks, 
and  Otters. 

18.  The   POLECATS, —  Piitoriiis, — are    the    most    sanguinary 
of  all.     Their  head  is  round  and  the  short   muzzle  extends  be- 
yond the  mouth ;  the  ears  are  rounded,  and  much  wider  than 
long ;  the  tongue  is  covered  with  rough  papilla  ;  the  coat  is  well 
furnished,  shining  and    soft;  their  tail  is  long,  and  they    have 
glands  on  each  side  of  the  anus  which  secrete  a  viscid  and  fetid 
matter.     Their  mode  of  life  is  solitary  and  nocturnal.     They  are 
found  in  both  the  old  and  new  world. 

19.  The  common  Polecat, — Mv stela  Putorivs, — is  brown  with 
yellowish  flanks  and  white  spots  on  the  head,  and  is  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  without  including  the  tail,   which  is 
six  inches  long.     It  is  the  terror  of  hen-roosts  and  rabbit  warrens. 
It  approaches  dwellings,  mounts  on  the  roofs,  and  establishes  it- 
self in  hay-lofts,  in  barns,  and  in  places  seldom  visited,  from  which 
it  goes  forth  only  at  night  in  search  of  its  prey.     It  glide?  into 
poultry  yards,  mounts  into  dove-cots,  where,  without  making  as 
much   noise  as  the  Beech  Marten,  (Weasel,)  it  commits  more 
havoc  ;  it  cuts  or  crushes  the  heads  of  all  the  poultry,  then  carries 
them  off  one  by  one,  and  stores  them  away.     If,  as  it  often  hap- 
pens, the  animal  cannot  carry  them  off  entire,  on  account  of  the 
hole  by  which  he  entered,  being  too  small,  he  eats  the  brains  and 
bears  off  the  heads,     ft  is  also  very  fond  of  honey ;    it   attacks 
hives  in  winter,  and  forces  the  bees  to  abandon  them.      Pole- 
cats live  on  prey  in  towns,  and  on  game  in  the  country ;  they 
establish  themselves  in  rabbit-burrows,  in  clefts  of  rocks,   in  the 
trunks   of  hollow  trees,  from  which  they  sally  only  at  night   to 
spread  over  the  fields  ;  in  the  woods,  they  seek  the  nests  of  par- 
tridges, of  larks,  and  quails  ;  they  also  climb  trees  to  prey  ;  they 

17.  What  is  meant  by  vermiform  carnivora?     By  what  characters  is  this 
tjroup  distinguished  ? 

18.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Polecats  '!     What  is  their  mode  of  life? 
in  what  parts  of  the  world  are  they  found  ? 

19.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Polecat?     What  A« 
its  habits  ?     On  what  does  the  common  polecat  feed  ? 


FERT1ET—  WEASEL.  57 


watch  for  rats,  moles,  and  field-mice,  and  they  wage  a  continual 
war  against  rabbits,  who  cannot  escape,  because  they  can  readily 
enter  their  holes.  The  Polecat  is  found  in  all  the  temperate  parts 
of  Europe. 

20.  The  Ferret — Mustda  Furo— also  belongs  to  the  genus  of 
the  Polecats,  and  very  much  resembles  the  common  polecat.     Its 
coat  is  clear  brown  or  yellowish  ;  its  body  is  more  elongated, 
more  delicate,  its  head  narrower,  its  muzzle  more   pointed  than 
the  j>olecat ;  the  female  is  smaller  than  the  male.     It   is  origin- 
ally from  Barbary ;  it  is  naturalized  in  Spain,  but  in  France  it  is 
only  met  with  domesticated,  and  is  employed  to  hunt  rabbits  in 
their  burrows.     This  animal,  says  Buffon,  is  naturally,  the  mortal 
enemy  of  the  rabbit :  when  a  rabbit,  even  dead,  is   shown  to  a 
young  ferretrthat  has  never  seen  one,  he  throws  himself  upon  it, 
and  bites  with  fury ;  if  living,  he  seizes  it  by  the  neck  or  the  nose 
and  sucks  its  blood.     When  let  into  a  rabbit-hole,  it  is  muzzled, 
that  it  may  not  kill  the  rabbits  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow,  but 
only  compel  them  to  sally  forth  and  be  caught  in  a  net  with  which 
it  is  usual  to  cover  the  entrance. 

21.  The  Weasel — Miistrla  Vvlyaris, — is  another  species  of  the 
genus  Polecat ;  it  is  of  a  chestnut  colour  above,  white  below,  in  length 
about  six  inches,  with  an  addition  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  lines  for 
the  tail.     This  animal  is  very  common  in  temperate  climates,  and 
is  terrible  to  hen-roosts,  into  which  its  small  size  enables  it  to  in- 
sinuate itself  through  very  narrow  openings.     When  a  Weasel 
enters  a  hen-roost,  it  does  not  attack  the  cocks  or  old  hens, -but 
selects  the  young  hens  and  chicks,  kills  them  by  a  simple  wound 
inflicted  on  the  head,  and  then  carries  them  off  one  after  the  other ; 
it  also  breaks  the  eggs  and  sucks  their  contents  with  incredible 
avidity.     In  winter,  it  generally  dwells  in  granaries  or  in  barns, 
frequently  remaining  there  till  the  spring,  to  give  birth  to  its  young, 
on  the  hay  or  straw  ;  during  all  this  time  it  wages  war,  more  suc- 
cessfully than  a  cat,  against  rats  and  mice,  because  they  cannot 
escape,  as  it  follows  them  into  their  holes ;  it  climbs  into  dove- 
cots, and  destroys  pigeons,  sparrows,  &c.     In  the  spring,  it  goes 
to  some  distance  from  habitations,  particularly  into  lew  places, 
about  mills,  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  rivers,  and  conceals 
itself  in  thfckets  to  surprise  birds,  and  often  establishes   itself  in 
the  hollow  of  an  old  willow  to  bring  forth  its  young. 

20.  What  arc  the  specific  characters  of  the  Ferret?     To  what  part  of  the 
world  did  the  Ferret  originally  belong?     What  are  its  habits? 

21.  What   are   the   specific   characters    of  the  Weasel  ?     What  are  iu 
«iabits?     In  what  part  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 

P2 


MARTENS. 


22.  We  will  mention  still  another  species  of  the  genus  Polecat, 
called   the  Ermine, —  Vlus  ela  Enniuea.     Its   body  is  about  nine 
inches  in  length,  and  the  tail  about  four.     This  little  animal  has 
two  coats;  in  winter,  it  is  white  with  the  tail  tipped  with  black, 
and  bears  the  name  of  Ermine ;  during  the  spring,  it  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful brown  above,  and   yellowish  white  below,  with  the  end  oi 
the  tail  always  black:  it  is  then  the  Rose/el.     It  is  found  in   the 
northern  parts  both  of  the  old  and  new  continent ;  and  though 
not  so  common  as  the  Weasel  in  France,  it  is  not  rare.     It  seeks 
stony  countries,  and  avoids  the  neighbourhood  of   habitations. 
The  winter  skins  of  this  species  are  very  much  sought  as  fur, 
and   form  a   very  considerable  article   of  commerce;    but  the 
Ermine  of  the  most  northern  countries  is  most  esteemed,  because 
it  is  so  brilliantly  white,  while  that  of  temperate  climates  always 
retains  a  yellowish  tint 

23.  The  MARTENS, —  Musteln,  (the  true  Weasel) — properly  so 
called,  resemble  the  Polecats  very  much,  but  differ  from  them  in 
having  a  muzzle  more  elongated,  and  a  tongue  covered  with  soft 
papilla.     The  numerous  species  of  this  genus  are  scattered  over 
both  continents  ;  among  them  we  will  mention : 

24.  The  Common  Marten, — Mustela  Martes, — brown,  with  a 
yellow  spot  on  the  throat,  and  of  a  stature  rather  larger  than  that 
of  the  Beech  Marten      It  lives  in  the  woods  of  northern  Europe, 
avoiding  inhabited  places  and  the  open  fields ;  it  destroys  a  great 
many  small  quadrupeds  and  birds ;   it  takes  possession  of  eggs, 
and  climbs  to  the  highest  branches  of  trees  to  dislodge  them.     It 
is  said  to  be  found  also  in  South  America. 

25.  The  Beech  Marten,— Mustela  Foina— (Plate  2,  fia.  16.) 
brown,   with  all  the  under  part  of  the  throat  and  neck  whitish, 
about  sixteen  inches  in  length,  besides  the  tail  which  measures 
eight.     It   is  found    in  European   forests,  and  often  approaches 
habitations,  where  it  even  establishes  its  abode.     But  it  is  a  dan- 
gerous guest :  when  it  succeeds  in  obtaining  an  entrance  into  a 
hen-roost,  or  a  pheasant-walk,  it  commences  by  putting  every 
thing  to  death  in  its  reach,  and  then  bearing  all  off,  piece  by  piece, 
to  its  retreat ;  it  is  a'so  voraciously  fond  of  eggs ;  it  seizes  rats,  mice, 
moles  and  birds  m   their   nests.     It  is  also  fond  of  honey  and 
hempseed. 

22.  What  is  the  Ermine?     Where  is   it  found?     What  are  its  habits  ? 
Of  wh-it  colour  is  it  ?     Has  climate  any  influence  on  the  colour  of  ils  coat  ? 

23.  How  does  the  genus  Marten  differ  from  that  of  Polecats? 

24.  ft  hat  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Marten?      What  are 
ils  habit-^? 

25.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Beech  Marten  ?      Where  is  i« 
found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


OTTERS.  5!) 


26.  The  Sable  Marten — Mvstcla  Zibelina — resembles  the  pre- 
ceding species  in  size  and  colour.  It  differs  from  the  other 
Martens  in  having  hair  growing  on  the  under  surface  of  the  toes, 
which  protects  them  from  the  cold.  Its  fur  is  a  valuable  article 
of  commerce.  It  inhabits  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  ;  and  abounds  most  in  the  mountains  of  frozen  countries, 
the  intense  cold  of  which,  renders  them  uninhabitable :  as  it  is 
the  winter  coat  that  is  most  highly  appreciated,  the  pursuit  of  the 
Sable  is  of  all  kinds  of  hunting  the  most  arduous  and  perilous. 

27  The  Skunks — iMephith — are  celebrated  for  the  intolerable 
stench  which  they  diffuse  to  a  great  distance.  Most  of  them  in- 
habit America. 

28.  The  OTTERS, —  Lntra,—  possess   a  peculiar  physiognomy, 
which  prevents  them  from  being   confounded    with   any  of  the 
neighbouring  genera.     The  head  is  large  and  compressed,  the 
body  squat,  and  tongue  semi-aspirate ;  their  toes  are  armed   with 
short  nails,  and  are  united  in  their  whole  length,  by  a  wide  and 
strong  membrane,  which  renders  these  animals  good  swimmers  ; 
the  tail  is  flattened  horizontally ;  their  coat  is  very  thick,  formed 
by  two  kinds  of  hairs,  the  silky  quite  long,  stout,  hard,  shining, 
and  thicker  at  the  point  than  at  the  base ;  the  woolly,  which  are 
shorter,  and  generally  more  numerous,  forming  a  thick  and  ex- 
tremely soft  fur.     These  animals  live  chiefly  upon  fish,  and  in- 
habit bye  places,  or  nooks,  which  they  line  with  dry  grass,  on  the 
banks,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water;  they  remain  concealed 
during  the  day,  and  sally  in  search  of  food  only  at  night.     Some 
species  are  known  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

29.  The   Common  Otter, —  Lntra  Vnlynrit, — about  two   feet 
long,  tail  about  one  foot  in  length,  brown  above,  greyish  below, 
and  sometimes  marked  with  white  spots,  lives  on  the  margins  of 
ponds  and  rivers,  in  different  parts  of  Europe. 

30.  The  Si-a  Otter — Mush-la  Lulrix — is  twice  the  size  of  the 
common  Otter,  and  its  black  coat  of  the  vivid  brightness  of  velvet, 
forms  one  of  the  most  precious  of  the  furs.     The  Rnglish  and  the 
Russians  hunt  this  animal  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  Pacific 

26.  How  docs  the  Sable  differ  from  other  Martens?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

27.  For  whit  particular  quality  are  Skunks  distinguished?     In  what  part 
of  the  world  are  they  found? 

28.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Otter  ?     What  are  the  habits  of 
animals  of  this  genus  ? 

29.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Otter  ? 

30.  What   are   the   specific   characters  of  the  Sea  Otter?     Where  is  the 
Sea  Otter  found  ?     Does  this   animal  contribute  any  thing  to  commerce  7 
In  what  respect  do  the   habits   of  this   animal    differ   from   those  of  '•tnoj 
species  of  Olt  rs  ? 

6 


*50.  DOGS. 


Ocean,  and  annually  convey  a  great  number  of  skins  to  China 
and  Jaoan.  This  species  inhabits  Kamtschatka,  the  most 
northern  parts  of  America,  and  the  neighbouring  islands;  most 
generally  it  keeps  on  the  sea  coast,  and  not  within  reach  of  fresh 
water,  like  the  other  species.  It  is  said  to  live  in  couples. 

31.  The  SECOND  GKOUP  OF  DIGITIGRADE  CARNIVORA,  characterised 
by  the  existence  of  two  tuberculous  teeth  behind  the  carnivorous 
tooth  of  the  upper  jaw,  is  composed  of  the  least  sanguinary  ani- 
mals  of  this  tribe ;  they  are  of  pretty   large  stature,  but  their 
courage  does   not  correspond  to  their  strength,  and  they  most 
generally  feed  on  carrion. 

32.  Amongst  the  genera  of  this  group,  the  first  that  will    be 
the  object  of  our  study,  is  the  genus  of  DOGS  :  it  is  composed 
of  species  which  resemble  each  other  in  the   principal  parts  of 
their  organization,  which,  nevertheless,  are  separated  into  two 
very  distinct  sub-genera ;  DOGS  and  FOXES. 

33.  All  these  animals  have  three  false  molars  above,  and  four 
below,  and  two  tuberculous  teeth  behind  each  carnivorous  tooth; 
their  tongue  is  soft ;  their  fore-feet  have  five  toes,  and  the  hind 
ones,  four;  their  nails  are  adapted  for  digging;  their  vision  is 
excellent,  their  hearing  fine  and  their  sense  of  smell  prodigious ; 
they  mix  vegetable  with  their  animal  food,  and  are  fond  of  putrid 
meat.     Generally,  they  are  animals  of  moderate  stature,  and  their 
proportions  are  indicative  of  their  strength  and  activity. 

34.  The  sub-genus  of  DOGS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  is  composed 
of  common  dogs,  and  different  species  of  wolves;  it   is   distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  foxes  by  the  tail,  which  in  the  latter  is 
longer  and  more  tufted  ;  by  the  form  of  the  muzzle,  and  particu- 
larly by  the  disposition  of  the  pupil.     In  dogs,  as  well  as  in  other 
diurnal  animals,  this  opening  is  circular,  while  in  foxes  it  takes, 
when  contracting  under  the  influence  of  light,  the  form  of  a  slit,  a 
peculiarity  which  is  characteristic  of  nocturnal  animals. 

35.  The  Domestic   Doy,  —  Canis  Familiaris — is  distinguished 
from  other  species  of  this  genus  by  his  recurved  tail,  otherwise 
varying  infinitely  in  size,  form,  colour,  and  quality  of  hair.  This 

31.  How  are  animals  of  the  second  group  of  Digitigrade  Carnivora  distin- 
guished? Are  animals  of  this  group  very  courageous? 

33.  Do  the  species  of  the  genus  Dog  resemble  each  other  in  their  organi- 
zation ?  How  is  this  genus  divided? 

33.  Wh;it  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  genus  Dog? 

34.  What  animals  compose  the  sub-genus   of  Dogs   properly  so    called  ? 
How  is  this  sub-genus  distinguished  from  that  of  Foxes  ?    What  peculiarity 
characterises  nocturnal  animals? 

35.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Domestic  Dog?     What  signs 
indicate  its  age  I 


DOGS. 61 

animal  is  born  with  his  eyes  closed,  and  does  not  open  them  tiU 
the  tenth  or  twelfth  day.  The  female  brings  forth  from  six  to 
seven,  and  sometimes  twelve  young  at  a  birth.  The  life  of  the 
dog  is  commonly  limited  to  fourteen  or  fifteen  years ;  though 
some  have  been  known  to  live  twenty  years.  Its  age  is  known 
by  the  teeth  becoming  blunt,  unequal  and  dark  coloured,  as  the 
animal  grows  old ;  when  young,  they  are  white,  trenchant  and 
pointed. 

36.  Dogs  are  voracious  and  gluttonous ;  nevertheless,  they  can 
fast  for  a  long  time ;  they   readily  accustom  themselves  to  all 
kinds  of  food,  although,  they  have  a  special  fondness  for  meat, 
and  particularly  for  carrion.     Their  stomach,  which  is  endowed 
with  great  energy,  digests  very  readily  the  hardest  and  most  com- 
pact bones. 

37.  The  dog  runs  with  great  rapidity  for  a  long  distance.     The 
pores  of  his  skin  being  very  much  closed,  he  never  sweats,  even 
in  the  very  hottest  weather ;  but  when  he  is  very  warm,  he  lolls 
out  his  tongue,  and  frequently  draws  it  in ;  he  plunges  into  the 
water  without  being  incommoded.     He  drinks  by  lapping,  so  that 
with  his  tongue,  he  lifts  the  water,  which,  being  in  this  way  in- 
troduced little  by  little,  into  the  stomach,  is  gradually   warmed, 
and  he  therefore  experiences  no  inconvenience,  by  the  sudden 
cold  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  swallowed  at  once, 
produces  in  the  interior  of  the  body  when  very  warm 

38.  The  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  smell,  in  some  races  of  dogs, 
gives  them  a  perception  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  species 
of  animals,  not  even   excepting   man.      This   sagacity    is  par- 
ticularly manifested  in  the  discovery  and  pursuit  of  game.     The 
dog  perceives  the  odorous  traces  with  which  the  soil  is  impreg- 
nated, for  twenty-four  hours  after  game  has  passed  over  it,  and 
in  this  way,  guides  himself  to  the  cover  where  the  animal  hides. 
There  are  two  principal  races  of  dogs  suited  for  hunting,  one  of 
which  is  trained  to  pursue  animals,  and  the  other  to  stand  at  the 
place  where  they  are  discovered. 

39.  The  dog  is  the  most  complete,  and  one  of  the  most  useful 
conquests  that  man  has  achieved  over  nature ;  the  whole  species 
has  become  our  property,  and  even  the  trace  of  his  primitive  state 
has   been  lost.     Wild  dogs,  which  are  found  in  many  countries; 
belong  to  the  domestic  races  that  have  regained  their  indepen- 

36.  What  is  the  food  of  dogs  ?     Have  Dogs  good  digestive  powers  ? 

37.  Do  Dogs  perspire  freely?    Wl>y  do  Dogs  suffer  no  inconvenience  from 
•irinkinjr  cold  water? 

.i8.   Have  Do'js  a  keen  sen«e  of  smell  ?     How  it<  this  fact  manifested  7 
39.  Is  the^e  any  primitive  race  of  Dogs  ? 


6?  DOGS. 

dence,  after  having  lost  it  for  a  certain  number  of  generations,  and 
in  this  way  have  resumed  some  of  the  traits  of  the  primitive 
species.  Causes  as  powerful  as  those  which  result  from  the  in- 
fluence of  difference  of  climate,  of  food,  &c.,  are  not  enough  to 
explain  the  numerous  modifications  that  the  domestic  dog  has 
undergone,  giving  rise  to  his  different  races.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  our  dogs  have  not  been  derived  from  a  single  species, 
but  that  they  came  from  different  species,  which  cannot  now  be 
recognised,  on  account  of  the  mixture  of  their  races.  Some  think 
the  dog  is  a  wolf,  and  others  again,  that  he  is  a  tamed  Jackal ;  dogs 
that  have  become  wild,  on  desert  islands,  do  not  however,  resem- 
ble either  one  or  the  other.  Wild  dogs,  and  those  belonging  to  demi- 
civilized  people,  such  as  the  nations  of  New  Holland,  have  straight 
ears,  which  has  led  to  the  belief  that  the  European  races  which 
approach  nearest  to  the  original  type,  are  the  Shepherd's  Doy  and 
Wolf-Dog. 

40.  We  will  now  mention  the  principal  races  of  dogs  that  are 
scattered   over  the  surface  of  the    earth.     Their  almost  infinite 
mixture,  joined  to  the  influence  of  climate,  of  food  and  education, 
has  produced  very  many  varieties  in  their  species. 

41.  1st.    The    Shepherd's    Dog,  —  Cunis    Domesticus^ — is    of 
moderate  size,  the  ears  short  and  straight ;  his  whole  body,  with 
the   exception  of  the   muzzle,  is  covered   with  long  hairs ;  his 
colour  is  black,  or  dark  brown.     Of  all  the  species  of  dogs,  this 
one  possesses  most  instinct  for  guarding  flocks. 

42.  2d.  The  L'p/and  Dag, —  Dog  of  the  Esquimaux, — Canis 
Borealis, — resembles  the  Shepherd's  dog,  and  inhabits  the  most 
northern    parts   of  Europe,   Asia,   and   America,    where   he   is 
employed  as  a  beast  of  burthen  :  they  are  geared  from  five  to 
ten  together,  (sometimes  more)  to  very  light  sledges,  constructed 
of  osier,  and  forced  to  run  so  rapidly,  that  they  sometimes  accom- 
plish in  a  single  day,  a  journey  on  the  ice  of  twenty-five  leagues. 

43.  3d.  The  Newfoundland  Dou,—  Cani8  Terra  Novce:—  The 
proportions  of  his  body  are  nearly  the  same  as  those   of  the 
Shepherd's  Dog.     His  body  is  thickly  covered   with  long    soft 
hair,  and  his  tail  recurved  and  tufted.     His  colour  is  ordinarily 
wnite,  with  patches  of  black  ;  he  is  tall,  and  has  an  elongated  body. 
He  is   very  active   and  possesses  strength  superior  to  that  of 
any  other  dogs  of  the  same  size.     He  attaches  himself  strongly 
to  his  master,  but  is  shy  of  strangers.     He  is   remarkable   for 

40.  How  do  you  account  for  the  numerous  varieties  of  Dogs? 
41    What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog  ? 

42.  How  is  the  Lapland  Dog  employed  ? 

43.  What;  re  the  specific  characters  of  the  New   foundland  Dog?  Foi  what 
js  ih:s  Dog  remarkable  ? 


DOGS. G3 

his  toes  bem?  united,  for  about  one  half  their  length  by  a  mem- 
brane, and  for  the  facility  with  which  he  takes  to  the  water, 
which  seerns  to  him  a  second  element.  This  quality  has  caused 
him  to  be  taken  to  places  where  men  are  in  danger  of  being 
drowned,  in  order  to  rescue  tnem. 

44.  4th.  The  Wo/f-Doy, —  Canis  Pomeranus, — is  distinguished 
from  the  Shepherd's  f)oy  by  the  hairs  that  cover  all  parts  of  the 
head,  and  by  his  highly  raised  tail ;  his  colour  is  generally  white, 
or  black,  or  pale  red :  in  some  countries  he  is  employed  to  watch 
the  flocks 

45.  5th    The  Hound, — Cnnis   Gnlticns: — There  are  several 
varieties  remarkable  for  the  length  of  their  pendant  ears ;  they 
have  strong  limbs,  short  hair,  tail  recurved  ;  they  are  white,  or 
black,  or  pale  red,  (fawn,)  or  spotted  with  these  different  colours. 
It  is  the  best  race  for  pursuing  game,  such  as  the  hare,  deer,  or 
wild  boar,   &c      The  Spanish  pointer  and  setter  belong  to  this 
variety 

46.  6th    The  Turnspit,— Canis  Vcrtagus: — In  this  race  the 
legs  are  always  very  short,  sometimes  straight,  and  often  crooked ; 
the  ears  are  large,  long  and  pendant.     The  Turnspits  are  prized 
for  hunting  in  company  with  the  Hound. 

47.  7th.    The  Settmg-Uoy,— Cards  Avion  /am,— differs  little 
from  the  preceding  and  the  ordinary  hound  ;  the  muzzle  is  not  so 
long,  the  ears  are  shorter,  the  limbs  longer,  and  the  body  thicker. 

48  8th.  The  Terrier, —Cants  Terrarms:— This  race,  of  which 
they  form  packs  in  England  for  chasing  the  fox,  hare,  and  rabbits, 
is  black,  having  the  eyes,  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the 
paws  of  a  deep  yellowish  red.  It  possesses  a  great  deal  of  viva- 
city and  intelligence,  and  great  ardour  in  the  chase;  it  watches 
for  mice,  and  catches  them  with  as  much  adroitness  as  a  cat. 

49.  9th.    The   Spaniel,  —  Cnnis  /<xhanus,—is  covered  with 
long  silky  hair ;  his  ears  are  pendant  like  those  of  the  hound,  and 
his  limbs  short ;  he  is  white  or  chestnut,  or  marked  with  these 
two  colours,  or  black.    It  varies  in  size,  and  is  valued  in  hunting  ; 
as  a  watch  dog,  and  as  a  companion. 

50.  10th.    The    Grey-hound, — Cants    Grains ;—  This  animal 
possesses  an  elegant  form,  and  was  so  much  esteemed  formerly, 

44    How  is  the  Wolf-D  >g  distinguished  from  the  Shepherd's  Dog? 

45.  What  are  'he  sp.  cific  characters  of  the  Hound  ? 

46.  For  what  is  the  Turnspit  valued? 

47.  How  does  the  Setting-Do*  differ  from  the  common  Hound  ? 

48.  What  art-  the  specific  characters  of  tlie  Terrier  ? 

49.  What    are  the    sp  cific  characters   of  the    Spaniel  ?      For  what  is  '•' 
pained  '' 

5J.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Greyhound?     Does  the  Grey 
hoii'id  hunt  by  the  sen-e  of  smel  like  the  common  Hound? 
6* 


54  DOGS. 


(hat  he  was  the  ordinary  companion  of  gentlemen,  who  in  those 
days  were  distinguished  by  their  charger,  their  falcon,  and  grey- 
hound. It  has  a  long  body,  a  long  delicate  head,  large  eyes,  a 
long  mouth,  teeth  sharp  and  very  white,  and  a  deep  chest.  Both 
his  fore  and  hind  legs  are  long  and  straight,  his  haunches  round 
and  strong,  his  loins  brawny  and  his  belly  thin.  He  is  the  most 
nimble  of  all  the  dogs,  and  is  fit  for  the  chase  from  twelvemonths 
old.  He  hunts  by  the  eye  and  not  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  it 
is  pretended  that  he  surpasses  them  all. 

51.  llth    The  Daui.sk  Ooa, — Can  s  Danicwt, — This  dog  pos- 
sesses great  beauty  ;  he  is  white  and  spotted  with  an  elegant  pro- 
fusion of  small,  round,  black  spots.      His  sense  of  smell  is  not 
acute. 

52.  12th.  The  Mastiff,— Cams  Mastivu*  ;— Dogs  of  this  race 
are  large,  vigorous,  and  nimble ;  their  ears  are  demi-pendant. 
They  are  gray,  white,  brown  and  black.     They   carry   the  tail 
high.     They  are  chiefly  employed  as  watch-dogs. 

53.  13th.     The     Water- Day, —  Canis   Jlquaticu*, —  (Water 
Spaniel).     This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  one  of 
the  most  common  in  France.     It  is  remarkable  for  its  long  curly 
hair ;  its  colour  is  black,  or  white,  or  mixed.     These  animals  are 
strongly   attached  to  their  masters,  and  perform  many  curious 
tricks.     They  are  very  fond  of  going  into  the  water. 

54.  14th.  The  Bull-Dug,  -  Canis  Molo  sus  :— The  dogs  of  this 
race  are  characterised  by  a  short  muzzle,  and  by  a  stout  body. 
Of  all  the  races,  this  is  the  least  intelligent.     It  is  divided  into : 

55.  The  English  Bull- Dog, — Canis  rfuglicus, — is  easily  recog- 
nised by  the  large  head  and  body.     The  ears  are  small  and  demi- 
pendant  ;  his  thick  lips  fall  on  each  side  of  his  mouth  ;  his  legs 
are  short  and  strong  ;  his  coat  is  smooth,  white  and  black.     This 
dog  is  employed   in  preference  to  others  tor  baiting  bulls  and 
wild  beasts. 

56.  The  Common  Bull- Dog — resembles  the  last  and    differs 
from  it,  in  being  smaller ;  it  often  has  the  nostrils  separated  by  a 
deep  fissure  or  cleft. 

57.  The    Ijvg-Dog,  -  Co  his   fricawr,  —  resembles   the    two 
last,  but  the  lips  are  less  pendant  and  it  is  smaller.     Its   coat    is 

51.  What  is  (he  Danish  Hog?  -w 

52.  How  is  the  Mastiff  described  ? 

53.  What  h  the  character  of  the  Water-dog? 
5-1.   What  ore  the  characters  of  the  Bull-dog? 

55.  By  what  characters  is  the  English  Bull-dog  recognised  ? 
5(1   In   what  respect  does  the  common  Bull  dog  differ  from  the  English 
Bull  dog  » 

57.   VV'nat  is  the  Pug-dog  ? 


WOLF.— JACKAL.— FOX. 6A 

smooth  and  generally  light  coloured,  except  the  face  which  is 
black.  It  does  not  possess  much  intelligence  and  is  very  heed- 
less. 

58.  The  Common  Wolf,— Canis  />;>?/«,— is  another  species  of 
the  sub-genus  dog ;  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  domestic 
dog  by  its  tail,  which  is  straight,  in  place  of  being  recurved,  as 
in  the  last.     Its  ears  are  also  straight,  ( Plate  3,  fig.  2.)  and  its 
coat  is  of  a  pale  red  or  fawn  colour.     This  animal  is  the  size  o, 
a  large  dog,  and  it  has  the  physiognomy  of  a  mastiff;  but  far 
from  being  like  the  dog,  eminently  social,  he  lives  almost  entirely 
solitary,  in  great  forests,  nor  does  he  unite  with  his  fellows    to 
form  troops,  except  when  pressed  by  hunger.     He  is  very  strong, 
active,  adroit,  and  provided  with  every  thing  that  is  necessary  to 
fit  him  for  the  pursuit,  attack,  and  conquest  of  his  prey ;  never- 
theless, he  is  naturally  sluggish  and  cowardly,  and  it  is  only  when 
pressed  by  hunger,  that  he  braves  danger,  and  dares  to  attack 
animals  which  are  under  the  protection  of  man,  as  lambs,  sheep, 
and  even  dogs.     Under  the  influence  of  excessive  hunger,  he 
commits  great  ravages.     He  attacks  women  and  children,  and 
sometimes  he  is  bold  enough  to  fall  upon  man.     He  inhabits  all 
Europe. 

59.  The  Jackal,  or  Golden    Wolf, —  Canis  Jlnnm, — which  is 
found  in  the  hot  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  in  its  habits  and  con- 
formation, more  strongly   resembles  the  domestic  dog  than  the 
common  wolf     It  permits  itself  to  be  tamed.     Many  naturalists 
consider  the  Jackal  as  the  original  stock  of  the  dog ;  and  many 
commentators  suppose  that  it  is  the  fox  of  Sampson. 

69.  The  second  group  of  the  genus  Dog  includes  the  FOXES 
These  animals  have  the  same  dental  system  as  the  dog;  but 
possess  a  larger  head,  a  more  pointed  muzzle,  a  longer  and 
more  bushy  tail,  and  by  day  their  pupils  present  the  form  of  a 
vertical  slit.  They  are  nocturnal,  burrow  in  the  earth,  exhale  a 
foetid  odour,  and  only  attack  feeble  animals.  Species  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Those  of  cold  countries  afford  a  valuable 
fur. 

61.  The  Common  Fojf — Canis  Vulpes,  —  which  is  spread  over 
all  Europe,  has  a  red  coat.  Every  body  knows  this  famous  ani- 
mal through  his  tricks  and  cunning.  He  generally  establishes 
his  abode  in  the  edge  of  a  wood,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
(arm.  If  he  gains  entrance  into  a  poultry  yard,  he  slaughters 

58.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Wolf? 

59.  What  is  the  Jackal  ? 

f»0.  In  what  particulars  do  Foxes  differ  from  Dogs? 

6J.   What  are  the  habits  of  ihe  common  Fox  ?     On  what  does  it  feed? 

Q 


6b  CIVET.— GENET. 


all  the  poultry,  and  loading  himself  with  a  part  of  the  spoils,  he 
hastens  to  deposite  it  at  some  distance,  then  returns,  and  carries 
oft"  another  part,  which  he  disposes  of  in  the  same  way,  taking 
the  precaution  however  to  change  the  place  of  deposite.  This  he 
repeats  several  times.  When  he  finds  birds  caught  in  a  snare, 
he  adroitly  frees  them  from  their  bonds  and  carries  them  off  to 
his  hole.  His  gluttony  accommodates  itself  to  everything.  When 
pressed  by  hunger,  he  eats  rats,  mice,  snakes,  toads,  lizards,  in- 
sects, and  even  contents  himself  with  vegetables.  Foxes  that 
live  near  sea  coasts  feed  upon  all  kinds  of  shell-fish. 

62  The  genus  CIVET, —  Viverra, — includes  not  only  the  Civet 
properly  so  called,  but  also  the  Genet,  or  wild  cat,  the  Mangouste 
and  several  other  carnaria,  which  seem  to  fill  up  the  chain  of  re- 
lationship between  the  dogs  and  cats. — (P. ate  2,  /ft*.  17,  and 
Plate  3,  fig.  \.)  Like  the  last,  their  tongue  is  rough,  and  their 
nails  are  more  or  less  retracted  when  walking,  so  that  their  ex- 
tremities are  always  kept  very  sharp.  All  of  them  have  a  pouch 
placed  more  or  less  deeply  under  the  tail,  containing  a  greasy 
matter  which  frequently  exhales  a  very  strong  odour. 

63.  The   iXvft  properly   so  called, — Civetfa, — has  been  im- 
properly called  the  musk  cat.     It  is  ordinarily  of  "an  ash  colour, 
spotted  white,  sometimes  striped  like  certain  species  of  cats      Its 
perfume,  which  consists  of  the  greasy  matter  formed  in  the  pouch 
we  have  just  mentioned,  is  so  strong  that  it  penetrates  all  parts 
of  the  body,  and  the  skin  preserves  the  odour  for  a  long  time 
after  it  has  been  stripped  from  the  animal.     Although  originally 
from  hot  countries,  Guinea  and  the  central  parts  of  Africa,    the 
Civet  can  live  in  temperate  and  in  cold  climates,  if  protected  from 
the  injurious  influences  of  the  air.     It  has  been  acclimated  in  Hol- 
land, where  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  its 
perfume.     The  quantity  afforded  by  each  animal  depends  upon 
its  keeping:  and  diet  ;  the  more  abundant  its  food,  the  more  per- 
fum?  it  yields.     It  is  said  to  be  most  abundant  after  the  animal 
has  been  irritated, 

64.  The  Genet,—  Genetta, — (PlatcS.Jjff.  17.)  bears  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  Civet ;  its  colour  is  gray,  spotted  brown 
and  black  with  a  blackish  muzzle,  white  spots  on  the  brow,  on 
the  cheek,  and  on  each  side  of  the  end  of  the  nose ;  the  tail    is 

,  62.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Civtt?  What  is  the  source  of 
die  odour  which  animals  or  this  genus  exhale? 

63.  What  fire  the  specific  characters    of  the    Civet    properly    so    called' 
What  is  the  source  of  its  perfume  ?     To  what  use  is  this  animal  applied  hi 
Holland  ? 

64.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Genet? 


MANGOUSTF..— HYENAS. 67 

ringed  white  and  black.  It  is  met  with  from  the  south  of  France 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  frequents  along  brooks,  near 
springs,  &c.  Its  skin  is  an  important  article  of  peltry.  Like  the 
Civet,  it  has  a  pouch,  containing  a  species  of  perfume.  It  clears 
the  houses  of  rats  and  mice,  which  cannot  endure  its  odour. 

65.  The  Munyounte  of  Ky ///>/, or  Pharaolis  Rut^ — Ichneumon 
Pkarannts —  Viverru  Ickncnii  on — (Platf  3,  fiy.  l.)also  belongs  to 
the  genus  of  Cioets.  It  resembles  the  Civet,  but  is  distinguished 
by  its  large  eyes,  with  the  pupils  elongated  transversely ;  which 
are  susceptible  of  being  almost  entirely  covered  by  a  large  wink- 
ing eyelid,  called  mcnibiana  nictiians.  It  is  larger  than  our  cats, 
slender  like  the  weasel,  and  of  a  grayish  colour.  This  animal  is 
the  famous  Ichneumon  of  the  ancients,  which  was  worshipped  by 
the  Egyptians  All  that  the  ancients  have  said  in  relation  to 
its  fights  with  the  crocodile  is  fabulous.  The  Mangouste  is 
naturally  mild  and  timid,  and  renders  very  important  service  to 
Egypt,  for  it  destroys  a  great  number  of  crocodile  eggs ,  it  also 
feeds  on  small  animals  of  all  kinds.  When  domesticated  it  hunts 
mice  and  the  small  reptiles  which  are  so  common  in  that  country. 

66  The  THIRD  GROUP  OF  CARNIVOROUS  DiGiriGRADES,  includes 
those  animals  of  this  tribe  which  have  no  small  teeth  behind  the 
great  molar  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  this  group  are  found  the  most 
cruel,  the  most  carnivorous,  and  on  account  of  their  strength, 
the  most  formidable  animals  ;  they  have  been  separated  into  two 
genera  :  the  HYENAS  and  CATS. 

67.  HYENAS,  (i'lat?  3,  fig.  3,)  are  distinguished  from  animals 
of  the  genus  CAT,  by  the  number  of  their  fingers,  which  is 
four  throughout,  by  their  nails  which  are  adapted  for  digging,  and 
which  are  never  drawn  in  or  retracted  when  on  the  march,  and 
by  the  position  of  their  teeth,  whose  strength  is  so  great  that  they 
can  crush  the  bones  of  the  strongest  of  their  prey.  Their  tongue 
is  rough,  their  sense  of  smell  acute,  their  tail  short  and  pendant, 
and,  below' the  anus  there  is  a  deep  pouch  in  which  a  glandular 
apparatus  secretes  a  viscous  matter,  which  diffuses  a  very  disa- 
greeable odour  The  coat  is  rough,  not  thick,  composed  of  long 
hairs,  which  form  a  mane  along  the  back.  Their  gait  is  most 
singular ;  they  keep  the  step  of  the  hind  legs  always  lower  than 
that  of  the  fore.  These- animals  are  nocturnal,  live  in  caverns, 

65.  What  is  the  hist  >ry  of  the  M.mgou>le?  Upon  what  does  it  usually 
feed? 

6G.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  third  group  of  carnivorous  Dgi'i. 
g-ades  ? 

67.  What  are  the  gene  al  characters  of  the  Hyenas?  What  do  they 
espjcial  y  feed  on  ? 


68  CATS. 


and  are  extremely  voracious;  they  feed  especially  on  dead  bodies, 
and  seek  them  even  in  burial  places;  they  possess  a  reputation 
for  ferocity  which  they  do  not  merit. 

68.  The  Common  IJyi'iia,  — Hyena  Vu'yaris, — is  originally  from 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Syria,  and  some  countries  of  Africa.     It  is  of  the 
size  of  a  wolf,  and  at  first  sight,  somewhat  resembles  him.     His 
coat  is  of  a  brownish  gray,  and  marked  with  white  stripes.     His 
head  is  commonly  carried  low ;  the  back  seems  elevated  like  that 
of  the  hog ;  he  has  long  bristles  which  fall  from  each  side. 

69.  The  cry  of  this  animal  is  peculiar :  it  begins  with  a  sound 
that  one  might  take  for  the  groans  of  a  man,  and  ends  pre- 
cisely as  if  a  person  were  making  efforts  to  vomit. 

70.  The  CATS, —  fc/is, —  a  name  under  which  naturalists  com- 
prehend, not  only  common  Cats,  but  also  Tigers,  Lions,  &c.)  of 
all  the  carnivora,  are  the  most  completely  armed :    their  short 
jaws  are  moved  by  prodigiously  strong  muscles  (Plate  3,  jig.  5;) 
they  have  two  false  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower 
jaw,  followed  by  a  very  large  carnivorous  tooth  ;  their  retractile 
nails,  which  are  hidden  amongst  the  toes  when  in  a  state  of  repose 
by  the  action  of  elastic  ligaments,  never  lose  either  their  point  or 
edge    ( Plate  3,  //</.   6.)     The  number  of  their  toes  is  five  on 
the  four  feet,  and  four  on  the  hind.  They  possess  a  sense  of  hearing 
which  is  exceedingly  fine,  and  it  is  the  best  developed  of  their  senses. 
Their  sight  does  not  seem  to  have  a  very  long  range,  but  they 
see  well  both  by  day  and  by  night ;  their  pupil  dilates  and  closes 
according  to  the  quantity  of  light ;  with  some,  it  is  elongated  ver- 
tically, and  with  others  it  is  round.     They  make  great  use  of  their 
sense  of  smell ;  they  exercise  it  before  eating,  and  always  when 
they  apprehend  disturbance  from  any  cause.     Their  tongue    is 
clothed  with  very  rough  horny  points.     Their  coat  is  generally 
soft  and  fine,  and  the  whole  surface  of  their  body  is  very  sensible 
to  the  touch  ;  their  mustaches  particularly,  seem   to  be  the  seat 
of  very  delicate  impressions. 

71.  Animals  of  the  genus  CAT,  are  spread  almost  every  where 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe :  they  every  where  possess  similar 
habits.     Though  endowed  with  prodigious  strength,  they  never 
openly  attack  other  animals  ;  stratagem  and  cunning  direct  all 
their    movements.     They  never  force  their  prey  into  flight ;  but 

68.  Whf-re  i-  the  common  Hyena  found  ?     What  are  its  characters? 

69.  What  is  tlio  peculiarity  o'  the  cry  of  ihe  common  Hyena  ? 

70.  What  are  the  gtn  rio  charac  ters  of  the  genus  Cat?     What  is  the  kind, 
number  and  position  o    tht  ir  tetth  ?     What  is  the  character  of  their  vision 
and  eyes  ? 

7"     VV'iat  are  the  h  bits  of  animal>  of  the  genus  Cat  7 


LION.— TIGER.— JAGUAR.  69 


most  frequently  concealed  in  a  bushy  covert,  near  the  source  of 
running  water,  they  await  the  animal  they  design  attacking,  and 
at  a  single  bound  alight  upon  their  victim. 

72.  At  the  head  of  this  genus  is  placed  the  Lion, —  Felis  Leo, — 
which  is  five  or  six  feet  in  length  from  the  end  of  the  muzzle  to 
the  origin  of  the  tail,  three  feet  high,  distinguished  by  a  square 
head,  the  brush  of  hair  which  terminates  his  long  tail,    and   the 
mane  that  covers  the  head,  neck  and  shoulders  in  the  male.     It 
is  the  strongest  of  the  carnivorous  animals.     It  has  an  imposing 
air,  a  proud  look,  and  noble  gait.     Such  is  his  power  that  a  single 
blow  of  his  foot  is  enough  to  crush   the  sides  of  a  horse,  and  to 
knock  down  the  strongest  man  with  a  blow  of  his  tail.     He  can 
clear  at  a  single  bound,  a  space  of  thirty  feet,  and  he  drags  with 
ease  to  great  distances  the  largest  bullocks.     Formerly  he   was 
spread  over  three  fourths  of  the  old   world,  but  at  present,    he 
appears  to  be  almost  confined  to  Africa  and  some  of  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  Asia      The  roar  of  the  Lion  is  such,  that  when 
it  resounds  in  the  mountains  it  resembles  distant  thunder.     This 
roar  is  hollow  and  deep ;  in   his   paroxysms  of  rage   he   utters 
another  cry  not  less  frightful,  but  short,  broken,  and  reiterated. 
Nothing  is  more  dreadful  than  this  animal  when  he  prepares  for 
combat.     He  lashes  his  flanks  with  his  long  tail ;  his  mane  be- 
comes  erect,  bristling,  and  envelopes  his   whole  head  ;  all  his 
muscles  are  in-  motion  ;  his  enormous  eye-brows  half  conceal  his 
pupils  ;  he  shows  his  teeth  and  frightful  tongue,  and  he  protrudes 
his  claws  which  are  almost  as  long  as  the  finger ;  his  approach 
would  freeze  with  terror  the  boldest  of  men.     With   the  excep 
tion  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  arid  hippopotamus,  no   other 
animal  dares  to  contend  with  him. 

[The  flesh  of  the  Lion  is  eaten  by  the  Hottentots;  and  a  tribe 
of  Arabs,  between  Tunis  and  Algiers,  live  almost  entirely  upon  it.] 

73.  The  animal  which  some  authors  call  the  American  Lion, 
is  another  species   of  the  genus  cat,    named    Cuuguar, — felis 
Concolor, — which  belongs  to  the  new  world. 

74.  The  Rnyul  Tiyer,  or  Eastern  Tiyer, —  Felis   Tigris, — is  a 
still  more  formidable  animal  than  the  Lion,  for  he  equals  him  in 
size  and  strength,  and  exceeds  him  in  ferocity  ;  his  hair  is  rough 
and  yellow  above  with  transverse  black  stripes.  (Plate  3,Jiy.  4.) 
He  inhabits  India,  and  there  commits  the  greatest  ravages. 

75.  The  Jaynar, —  Fi-lis  Onca,—  (the  Ounce,)  which  is  almost 
as  large  as  the  Royal  Tiger,  and  almost  as  dangerous,  inhabits 

72.  Wiiat  aie  the  spi  oific  chaiacters  of  th   L;ou  ?    Where  iw  lie 

73.  What  is  the  American  I. ion-? 

74.  What  is  ih.  lio.al  Tiger? 

75.  Wh^t  are  the  characters  of  the  J.  guar  ? 

Q2 


70 PANTHER.— LYNX.— DOMESTIC  CAT— AMPHIBIA. 

the  great  forests  of  America ;  his  coat  is  yellow  above,  with  black 
spots  in  the  form  of  eyes  or  rings,  arranged  in  four  rows  along 
the  flanks,  and  white  striped  with  black  below.  He  is  sometimes 

-  distinguished  under  the  name  of  American  Tiger,  and  furriers 
call  him  the  Great  Panther. 

76.  The  Panther, —  Felix  I'nrdiix — so  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  his  yellow  coat  with  black  spots  in  the  form  of  roses,  is  found 
throughout  Africa  and  in  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  very  much  re- 
sembles the  Leopard,  which  inhabits  the  same  regions. 

77.  The  name    Lynx, —  F>-lis  Lynx, — The  mountain   cat — is 
given  to  another  species  of  c;it,  remarkable  for  the  brush  of  hair 
that  tips  the  ears;  it  is  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length  ;  its 
coat  is  red,  spotted  with  brownish  red  ;  it  is  indigenous  to  tem- 
perate Europe,  but  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  populous 
countries  ;  it  is  still  met  with  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  mountains 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  Africa.     It  climbs  the  highest 
trees  of  the  forest,  and  there  lies  concealed  among  the  branches 
to  watch  the  Weasel,  Ermine,  Squirrel,  &c.     It   commits   great 
havoc  amongst  flocks,  and  destroys  a  great  number  of  hares  and 
game  :  its  sight  is  so  piercing  that  the  ancients  attributed  to  it  the 
faculty  of  seeing  through  stone  walls ;  but  we  can  say,  that  it 
distinguishes  its  prey  at  a  much  greater  distance  than  any  other 
carnivorous  animal. 

78.  The  Common  or  Domestic  Cat, —  Felis  Catus, — is  origin- 
ally from  the  forests  of  Europe.     In  its  wild  state,  it  is  grayish 
brown,   with  transverse  undulating  stripes  of  a  deeper  colour 
above,  and  pale  below  ;  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  the  four  paws 
yellowish,  and  the  tail  annulated  with  black.  When  domesticated 
it  varies  in  the  colour,  fineness,  and  length  of  its  hairs,  as  every 
body  knows. 

Ti  the  of  Amphibia. 

79.  The  third  tribe  of  tne  family  of  Carnivora  comprises  ani- 
mals which,  capable  of  being  submerged   for  a  long  time   and 
having  a  body  favourably   organised    for  natation,  keep  them- 

*  selves   most  generally  in  the  sea,  although  they  have  a  constant 
necessity  for  respiring  the  air.     These  animals  have  been  named 
A ini>kil>i<i,  on  account  of  their  mode  of  life;    their  feet  are   so 
short  and  so  enveloped  in  the  skin  that  they  serve  them  on  land 

76.  What  is  the  Panther? 

77.  What  are  the  habits  and  character  of  the  Lynx  ? 

78.  What  i«  the  orijrifi  of  the  domestic  Cat  ? 

79.  What  are  Amphibia  ?     What   families  are  included  in  the  tn'>e  of 
Amphibia? 


SEALS.— MORSE.  71 


only  for  crawling;  but  as  the  spaces  between  their  fingers  are 
filled  up  by  membranes,  they  form  excellent  oars.  (Mate.  3.  fig.  7.) 
They  only  land  to  bask  in  the  sun,  to  sleep,  and  to  suckle  their 
young.  Their  elongated  'body,  their  very  moveable  spine,  pro- 
vided with  muscles  which  flex  it  with  great  force,  their  narrow 
pelvis,  their  rough  hair  lying  close  to  the  skin,  concur  to  render 
them  good  swimmers.  They  form  two  families:  the  Seal,  and 
the  Mojse. 

80.  SEALS, — Phoca, — (Plate  3,  fig    7.) — have  a  round  head 
resembling  that  of  a  dog,  a  mild  intelligent  look,  the  canine  teeth 
of  moderate  size,  the  fore  paws  armed   with   hooked  nails,   the 
posterior  extremities  directed  backwards  and  in  the  form  of  fins. 
These  animals  live  in  numerous  troops  near  coasts,   and  feed 
principally  on  fishes:  they  always  eat  in  the  water ;  they  swim 
with  great  ease  and  dive  very  well.     The   ancients  knew  these 
animals  and  introduced  them  into  their  fables.     The  flocks  of 
Neptune  that  Proteus  tended  were  composed  of  seals,   and  the 
poetic  mythology  of  the  Greeks  has  transformed  these  Amphibia 
into  Tritons  and  Syrens  to  escort  their  god  of  the  sea.     Modern 
voyagers  often  designate  them  under  the  names   of  Sta-califcs, 
Sea-cows,  Sea-beam,  $c.      This    little  family   is    divided  into 
several  genera. 

81.  [Seals  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  South  Shetland  Isles, 
and  the  western  coast  of  America,  and  in  the  Northern  Seas. 
They  are  much  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their  skins.     These  ani- 
mals are  of  great  importance  to  the  Finnish  Islanders,  the  Kamt- 
schatkadales,  and  particularly  the  Greenlanders,  and  to  the  Esqui- 
maux of  Labrador.     The  two  latter  people  live  on  their  flesh, 
clothe  themselves,  build  their  summer  huts,  make  their  canoes,  &c. 
of  their  skins.     The  chase  of  the  seal  forms  their  principal  busi- 
ness, and  their  success  in  this,  forms  at  once  their  fortune  and  glory. 

82.  The  MORSE, —  Tnchei-hns,— (the  Walrus)— is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  Seal  by  its  enormous  canine  teeth  which,  planted 
in  the  upper   jaw,    are    directed    downwards  like  tusks,   and 
sometimes  attain    two   feet    in  length.    (Plate  3,  fig.  8.)     The 
necessarily  large  size  of  the  alveoli  for  the  accommodation  of  such 
immense  canine  teeth,  raises  up  the  whole  front  of  the  upper 
jaw  into  the  form  of  a  swelled  jowl,  and  the  nostrils  open  upwards 
instead  of  terminating  the  muzzle.     There  are  neither  incisor  nor 
canine  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  compressed  anteriorly,  to 
pass  between  the  enormous  canine  teeth  or  tusks  of  the  upper  one 

80.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Seals?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

81.  What  p:trts  of  the  world  do  Seals  inhabit  ? 

82.  How  is  the  Morse  distinguished  from  the  Seal? 


72  POUCHED  ANIMALS. 


S3.  The  chief  use  of  these  tusks  seems  to  be  to  aid  the  Morse 
to  detach  from  the  ground  and  rocks  the  substances  upon  which 
he  feeds.  They  also  serve  to  secure  him  to  the  rocks  before  he 
trusts  himself  to  sleep. 

84.  In  other  respects  the  Morse  resembles  the  seal,  the  only 
species  known  inhaoits  the  icy  ocean,  and  is  sometimes  twenty- 
feet  in  length. 

LESSON    VII. 

ORDER  OF  MARSUPIALIA. — Zoological  Characters. — Peculiarities 
of  Organization. — Habits,  (Opossums,  Phalanger*,  Kangaroos.) 

ORDER  OP  RODENTIA — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities  of 
their  Organization. — Organization  and  Habits  of  the  Ge tins  of 
Squirrels. — Squirrels  properly  so  culled,  (Common  Squirrel, 
Flying  Squirrel.)  —  Organization  and  Habits  of  the  Genus  of 
/?a/«. — Marmots.-  Habits.  —  Hibernation. — Dormouse. —  Rats 
properly  so  called,  (Mouse,  Hat.) — Hamsters. — Field-mice. — 
Jerboa. — Genus  of  Castors.  —  Organization  and  Habits  of  Cas- 
tors properly  so  called. — Genus  of  Porcupines. — Organization 
and  Habits  of  Porcupines  properly  so  called. — Genus  of  Hares. 
—  Organization  and  Habits  of  Hares  properly  so  cal'cd ;  (Com- 
mon Hare,  Rabbit.} — Genus  of  Guinea-pigs. — Chinchilla. — 
General  remarks  on  Peltries. —  The  use  of  Hair  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Felt. — Glue. 

1.  The  Marsupialia  are  unguiculate  mammals  whose  different 
organs,  at  the  time  of  birth,  are  very  imperfectly  formed ;  and 
they  adhere  by  some  means  to  the  teat  of  the  mother  until  their 
developement  is  accomplished.     In  the  majority  of  these  animals, 
the  skin  of  the  belly  forms,  in  front  of  the  teats,  a  pouch  which 
serves  to  lodge  the  young  while  they  are  suckled ;  it  is  from  this 
peculiarity  of  organization,  they  have  obtained  the  name  of  Mar* 
supialia,  or  pouched-animals. 

2.  The  young,  incapable  of  motion  and  almost  without  a  dis- 
tinct form,  remain,  for  a  certain  time,   fixed   to  the  teats  of  the 
mother,  and  concealed  in  the  mammary  pouch  of  which  we  have 
just  spoken.     They  do  not  detach  themselves  until  they  are 

83.  What  use  does  the  Morse  make  of  its  tusks  ? 

84.  Where  is  the  Morse  found  ? 

1.  What  are  Marsupialia?     What  is  the  peculiaiity  of  their  organization 
from  which  their  name  is  derived  ? 

2.  During  what  period  do  the  young  of  the  Marsupials  make  use  of. the 
mammary  pouch  ?     How  are  the  young  of  those  Marsupialia  that  have  no 
pouch  enabled  to  cling  to  their  mothers '/ 


POUCHED  ANIMALS.  73 


covered  with  hair,  open  their  eyes  and  are  able  to  live  on  other 
food  than  milk.  For  a  long  time  after  they  have  left  this  pouch, 
they  fly  to  it  as  a  place  of  refuge  when  threatened  by  any  danger. 
{Hate  3,  Jig.  9.)  In  those  species  that  have  no  pouch,  but  a 
prehensile  tail,  the  young  are  pendant  from  the  belly  of  the 
mother  for  a  certain  time  ;  then  they  mount  upon  her  back,  and, 
for  the  sake  of  support,  wrap  their  tails  around  hers. 

3.  All  these  animals  which  are  so  intimately  linked  to  each 
other  by  the  manner  in  which  their  young  are  developed,  differ 
very  much  in  other  respects.     In  some,  the  dental  system  is  pre- 
cisely like  that  of  the  insvctivoia,  and  accordingly,   they   feed 
upon  similar  food ;  in  others,  that  still  possess  the  three  sorts  of 
teeth,  the  molars  are  tuberculous  in  place  of  being  studded  with 
points,  and  hence  their  jruyivorous  diet;  and  there  are  some  that 
want  the  canine  teeth,  which,  if  we  take  this  circumstance  into 
consideration,.*should  be  placed  amongst  the  Rodentia,  (Plate  3, 
fig.  12  )     These  animals  also   differ  from   each   other   in  their 
general  form  and  habits. 

4.  The  Marsupialia  have  only  been  found  in  America,  on  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  and  particularly  in  New  Holland, 
which,  with  some  exceptions,  contains  only  mammiferous  animals 
of  this  order. 

5.  The  order  of  Marsupialia  is  divided  into  six  tribes,  as  follows : 

First  Tribe.  Two  long  canines  in  each  jaw;  several  small  incisors;  molars 
studded  with  points.  (Opossum.) 

Second  Tribe.  The  superior  canines  long  and  pointed,  but  the  inferior 
rudimentary,  or  entirely  wanting;  six  small  incisors  above,  but  only 
two  larsje  ones  below.  Thumb  large  and  directed  backwards  ;  the 
two  next  fingers  joined  as  far  as  the  nails  (Phaltingers.) 

Third  Tribe.  Two  large  incisors  above  with  some  small  ones  adjoining,  and 
two  small  canines;  no  thumb  behind;  paws  very  short.  (Koala.) 

Fourth  Tribe.  Dentul  system  nearly. the  same  as  in  the  preceding  tribe; 
no  thumb  on  the  posterior  extremeness  which,  as  well  as  the  tail,  are 
very  long.  (Potoroos.) 

Fifth  Tribe.  Without  canines ;  a  long  vacant  space  between  the  incisors 
and  molars;  several  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  posterior  extremiti  a 
and  tail  very  long.  (Kangaroos.) 

Sixth  Tribe.  No  canines;  two  long,  inclosed  incisors  in  eacn  jaw;  molais 
studded  with  transverse  ridges ;  tail  short.  (Phascolornys.) 

3.  Are  all  Marsupials  alike?      What  is  the  nature  of  their   diet  ?     Is  the 
dental  system  the  same  in  all  Marsup  als  ? 

4.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  an-  the  Ma'supiils  found? 

5  How  is  the  order  of  Marsupialia  divided?  Whit  are  the  characters 
which  distinguish  the  Opossum  from  other  Marsupials?  What  are  the  or- 
game  characters  of  the  Phalangnrs  ?  By  what  features  can  the  Koala  be 
recognised  ?  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Potoroos  ?  What  are  the  or 
game  characters  of  the  Kangaroo? 


74  OPOSSUMS.-  PHALAKGERS. 


6.  The  FIRST  TRIBE  of  Marsupials  is  composed  of  animals  th<u 
are  essentially  insectivorous ;  some  of  them  belong  to  New  Hoi- 
land  ;  but  the  greatest  number  inhabit  America.     The  last  consti- 
tute the  genus  Opossum, — Surigne. 

7.  The  OPOSSUMS  have  the  hind  thumb  perfectly  opposable  to 
the  other  fingers,  which  arrangement  has  obtained  for  them  the 
name  of  /Wt'/ia/ta.     They  have  ten  incisors  above,  eight  below, 
and  fourteen  molars  in  each  jaw,  which,  with  four  canines,  make 
fifty  teeth,  a  greater  number  than   is  possessed  by  any  other 
mammiferous   quadruped.      They    are    nocturnal  animals,  and 
nestle  on  trees  j  they  feed  on  fruits,  dead  meat  and  weaker  ani- 
mals.    There  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  species,  all  belonging 
to  America. 

8.  The  Common  Opossum, — Didelphis  Virginiana, —  (Mute  3, 
fiy.Q.j  is   about  the  size   of  a  cat;    but  its  coat  gives  it   the 
appearance  of  greater  size.     Its  head  bears  some- resemblance  to 
that  of  a  fox,  with  long,  inanimate  eyes,  and  broad,  translucent 
ears  like  those  of  the  rat     The  tail  is  round,  and  nearly  a  foot 
long;  it  is  lightly  covered  with  hair    near  its  root,  but  at  the  ex- 
tremity is  entirely  naked. 

9.  On  the  ground  the  Opossum  is  slow,  and  without  resources, 
but  he  climbs  trees  with  the  greatest  dexterity.     His  food  con- 
sists of  birds  which  he  watches  for,  and  surprises  in  the  foliage. 
he  suspends  himself  by  his  tail,  which  is  muscular  and  flexible, 
and  in  this  position  he  awaits  his  prey  for  several  hours  at  a  time. 

10.  All  the  other   Marsupialia  inhabit  New  Holland,  or  the 
neighbouring  islands ;  among  these  animals  we  will  mention  the 
Phalangers,  Potoroos,  Koalas,  and  Kangaroos. 

1 1.  The  PHALANGERS  —  lj/ta/angistu, — are  climbers  that  have 
a  large,  opposable  thumb,  and  in  their  general  form  somewhat 
resemble  squirrels.     Some  of  these  Marsupials  have  received  the 
name  of  fraying  Phalangers  on  account  of  the  prolongation  of  the 
skin  of  their  flanks  between  their  extremities,  forming  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  a  sort  of  parachute,  by  which  it  is  in  a  degree 
sustained  in  the  air  when  he  leaps  from  one  tree  to  another. 


6.  Upon  what  kind  of  food  do  Marsupials  of  the  first  tribe  live  ?     Where 
are  they  found  ? 

7.  Why  are  Opossums  called  Pe-Mmana?  How  many  species  of  Opossum 
are  known?     Where  do  they  belong?     How  many  teeth  have  they '! 

8.  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  common  Opossum  ?     Describe  its  tail  ? 

9.  Is  this  animal  equally  active  in  all  situations  ?     How  does  it  obtain  its 
food? 

10.  Are  Opossums  found  in  New  Holland?     What  Marsupials  are  fou.id 
there? 

11.  What,  are  Phalangers?     What  are  flying  Phalangers? 


KOALA.— POTOROO.- KANGAROO.— RODENTIA.  75 


12.  The  KOALAS: — Of  this  tribe  only  one  species  is  known,-^ 
Koala  Ciiierea, — which  inhabits  New  Holland.     It  has  a  short, 
stout  body,  short  legs  and  no  tail.     The  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  live 
in  number,  when  about  to  seize  any  object,  separate  into  two 
groups ;  the  thumb  and  index  on  one  side,  and  the  remaining  three 
on  the  other.     It  passes  one  part  of  its  life  in  trees,  and  the  other 
in  burrows  at  their  foot. 

13.  The  POTOROOS, —  Hyfisiprymuvs:—  Of  this  tribe  only   one 
species  is  known.     It  inhabits  New  Holland,  and  is  described  by 
most  authors  under  the  name  of  the  Kanyamo-rat.     It  has  a  long 
powerful  tail,  and  the  two  first  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  united  as 
in  the  kangaroos.     It  is  frugivorous. 

14.  The    KANGAROOS, — Halmaturns, — (Plate    3,    fig.  11.)  are 
herbivorous  animals,  very  remarkable  for  the  smallness  of  their 
fore  paws,  the  length  of  their  hind  legs  and  tail,  upon  which  they 
sit  vertically  as  on  a  tripod.     By  the  assistance  of  these  great 
paws  they  leap  very  well,  and  there  is  one  species  known  that  can 
clear  a  space  of  twenty  feet  at  a  single  bound.     The  disposition 
of  the  nail  of  the  middle  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  makes  them  some- 
what resemble  ungulate  mammals,  for  it  is  very  large  and  almost 
in   the  form  of  a   hoof.     They  inhabit  New   Holland,  and  the 
neighbouring  Islands.     One  species  called  the  Giant  Kanyaroo, 
stands  about  six  feet  high. 

ORDER     OF     RODENTIA. 


15.  The  RODENTIA  or  gnawers,  are  easily  distinguished  from  al1 
other  vnavicvlate  mammals  without  mammary  pouches,  by  the 
arrangement  of  their  teeth,  which  correspond  to  the  nature  of 
their  food.  These  animals  have  no  canine  teeth,  and  there  is  a 
vacant  soace  between  the  incisor  and  molar  teeth.  (Plate  4  fiq.  6.) 
The  first  are  remarkable  for  their  strength,  their  length,  their 
arched  form,  and  the  lozenge  shape  of  their  cutting  edge;  their 
number  is  almost  always  two  in  each  jaw,  and  their  anterior 
surface  is  ordinarily  tinged,  of  a  more  or  less  deep  yellow  colour 
The  molar  teeth  have  a  large,  flat  crown,  traversed  by  raised 

12.  What  are  Koalas? 

13.  What  are  Potoroos  ? 

14.  What  are  Kangaroos?     To  what  p  rt  of  tl-e  world  do  thry  belong  ? 

15.  How  are  the   RooVntia   distinguished?     What  are  the  cha  acters  of 
their  canine    teeth?     Wh«t  is  the  r  number?     What  is   the  (o'our  of  the 
canine  teeth7     What  are  the  charactcis  of  the   molar  teeth  of  gnawers? 
How  is  the  lower  jaw  attached  to  the  cranium?     What  circumstance  h*« 
given  the  name  to  this  order  of  animals  ? 

7" 


7«>  '  RODENTIA. 


linos,  which  renders  their  surface  like  that  of  a  mill-stone.  Finally, 
the  lower  jaw  of  these  animals,  in  place  of  being  articulated  with 
the  cranium  by  a  transverse  condyle,  (like  that  in  the  carnaria,) 
is  joined  to  it  by  a  longitudinal  condyle,  which  only  permits 
motion  forwards  and  backwards:  on  this  account,  these  animals 
cannot  use  their  teeth  either  for  tearing  flesh  or  even  cutting  the 
substances  upon  which  they  feed,  and  they  are  forced,  therefore, 
to  file  them  as  it  were,  in  order  to  reduce  them  by  continual 
labour  to  very  delicate  particles,  and  it  is  from  this  circumstance, 
they  have  obtained  their  name  of  gnawers  or  rodentia. 

16.  In  conformity  to  this  mode  of  organization,  the  gnawers 
must  necessarily  be  designed  to  feed  chiefly  upon  vegetable  sub- 
stances; some  of  them  are  orrnivorous  (rats,  (or  example;)  but, 
for  the  most  part,  they  live  upon  fruits,  herbs,  barks  or  roots. 

17.  Most  of  these  animals  are  of  small  stature,  and  in  general, 
their  hind  paws  are  much  longer  than  the  fore,  so  that  they  rather 
leap  than  walk.     The  hare  affords  us  an  example' of  this  arrange- 
ment, which,  in  some  other  gnawers,  (the  Jerboas,)  is  carried   so 
far  that  the  animal  only  uses  his  hind  paws  to  leap  with,  and  to 
rest  upon.     (Plate  4.  fig.  11.) 

18.  As    regards   intelligence,  the  Rodentia  are,  in   general, 
less  favoured  by  nature  than  the  quadrumana  and  carnaria,  and 
it   is   remarked  that  their  brain  is  less  developed  and  presents 
scarcely  any  convolutions.     Nevertheless,  we  rind  in  this  order, 
those  mammalia  whose  instinctive  faculties  .are  most  admirable, 
as  we  shall  see  when  we  treat  of  the  castors,  and  squirrels 

19.  This  order  is  composed  of  several  small  tribes,  the  most 
important  of  which,  with  their  distinctive  characters,  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table:  in  which  it  will  be  perceived,  they  are 
all  arranged  in  two  principal  sections,  according  as  they  possess 
a  perfect,  or  an  imperfect  clavicle :  the  first  section  has  been 
called   Rodentia   with  clavicles;  and  the  second,  Rodentia  with 
imperfect  clavicles : 

16.  What  is  the  general  food  of  the  Rodentia?     Does  their    organization 
indicate  the  kind  of  i'ood  on  which  they  live  / 

17.  What  is  the  general  mode  of  progression  amongst  Rodentia?     How  is 
their  mode  of  progression  accounted  for? 

18.  What  decree   of  intelligence   i-s    pos-e  scd  by  the  Rodentia  compared 
wiih  other  animals?     What  is  the  comparative  rievclopement  of  t'-eir  brain  ? 

19.  (Answer f.d  in  the  table.')  Flow  is  the  order  Rodent ia  divided?      What 
is  tne   composition   of  the   teeth   of  Squirrels    niid   Rats?      Have   they  any 
davicles?     What  numb;  r  of  toes  have  Castors  ?      What  tribes  of  this  order 
have  no  clavicle,  or  only  a  very  short  one?     What  tribes  of  this  order  have 
moiur  teeth  without  roots?     What  tribes  of  this  order  have  molar  teeth  with 
roots  ?     In  what  tribes  do  the  molar  teelh  cease  growing  when    completely 
formed?     In  what  tribes  do  the  mo'ar  teeth  continue  to  grow  through  Ufb? 


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78  SQUIRRELS. 


Tribe  of  Squirrel*. 

20.  The  squirrels  are  recognised  by  their  long,  bushy  tail,  anr1 
by  their  lower  incisor  teeth,  which  are  very   much  compressed. 
(Plate  4.  fig   7  )     Their  head  is  large,  their  eyes  projecting  and 
animated,  and  their  form  light ;  their  anterior  extremities,  which 
often  serve  them  for  conveying  food  to  the  mouth,  are  sustained  by 
strong  clavicles,  and  are  provided  with  only  four  fingers  which 
are  armed  with  hooked  nails,  while  the  posterior  extremities  have 
five.     These  animals,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  agility,  live 
on  trees  and  feed  upon  fruits. 

21.  They  are  divided  into  Squirrels  properly  so  called,  Flying- 
Squirrels,  $c. 

22.  SQUIRRELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Sciurus, — have  the  hairs 
of  the  tail  directed  from  the  sides,* giving  it  some  resemblance  to 
a  large  feather.     There  are  many  species  on  both  continents ;  in 
France,  the  Common  Squirrel,  —  Sciurmt  Vulgarly —  is  met  with 
in  great  numbers,  and  in  the  climate  of  that  region,  preserves  its 
colours  (a  lively  red  on  the  back,  and  white  on  the  belly ;)  but  in 
the  north,  during  the  winter,  it  acquires  a  beautiful  bluish  ash 
colour,  (producing  the  fur  called  minever,  when  taken  from  the 
back  only,  and  onir  by  the  French  —when  it  consists  of  the  whole 
skin.)     Sometimes  there  are  black  squirrels  ;  less  frequently  snow 
white  .with  red  eyes;  and  more  rarely  still,  spotted  with  black 
and  white. 

23.  These  lively,  graceful   little  animals  inhabit  the  forests, 
and  make  their  nests  upon  the  highest  parts  of  the  loftiest  trees  ; 
they  build  them  in  a  spherical  form,  of  flexible  twigs  and   moss, 
and  leave  an  opening  in  the  upper  part,  taking  the  precaution  to 
cover  it  with  a  sort  of  conical  roof,  which  prevents  the  ingress  of 
rain.     In  this  nest  they  pass  a  part  of  the  day  :  they  sally  forth 
in  the  evening,  at  which  time  they  are  gay,  jumping  from  branch 
to  branch,  and  uttering  a  pretty  sharp  whistle.     During  the  sum- 
mer, squirrels  are  occupied  in  making  provision  for  the  winter ; 
it  is  remarked   that  they  have  a  great  propensity  to  hide  what 
over  food   may  remain   after   feeding,     The  trunk  of  a  hollow 
tree  is  their  usual  store-house,  to  which  they  recur   when  the 
fruits  upon  which  they  feed  grow  scarce  ;  they  know  how  to  dis- 

20.  How  are  Squinels  recognised  ?    How  m;.ny  toe-,  or  finjjeis  have  they 
on  the  fore,  and  how  nri:iy  o<i  tie  hind  paws?     What  do  Squirrels  feed  on  ? 

21.  How  is  the  t-ibt-  of  Squirrels  divi  ;•  d  ? 

22.  What  is  minever? 

23.  What  are  the  habits  of  Squir re's  ?  Wheie  and  how  do  th'  y  build  their 
.jests?     Are  th  ir  limbs  all  of  the  same  length?     What  is  the  character  •>! 
their  voice  ? 


FLYING    SQUIRRELS  79 


cover  their  depot  when  under  the  snow,  which  they  remove  with 
their  paws,  and  their  instinct  teaches  them  not  to  put  all  the}* 
gather  into  the  same  place :  ordinarily  they  make  several  store- 
houses, and  when  one  is  discovered  and  robbed,  or  exhausted, 
they  recur  to  the  others.  By  their  address  and  agility  alone,  they 
succeed  in  eluding  their  enemies.  The  moment  they  are  apprised 
of  their  approach  by  any  extraordinary  noise,  they  leave  their 
nest,  and  through  the  assistance  of  their  nails,  which  enables 
them  to  adhere  to  the  bark  of  trees, -we  see  them,  in  order  to 
escape  from  the  object  of  their  dread,  place  the  thickness  of  a 
branch  between  it  and  themselves,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  see 
them,  if  one  is  perceived  by  them  ;  when  we  go  around  the  tree 
to  get  to  the  same  side  upon  which  they  are,  they  at  once  pass  to 
the  opposite,  and  if  their  fear  becomes  still  greater,  they  cover 
themselves  betwixt  two  branches  and  lie  motionless.  These 
animals  are  extremely  clean  in  their  habits  ;  they  never  soil  their 
nests,  and  they  are  continually  polishing  their  hairs  with  their 
fore  paws,  which  they  employ  for  many  other  purposes:  it  is 
with  these,  they  convey  food  to  the  mouth,  and  pluck  the  moss 
with  which  they  build  their  nests :  in  some  instances  they  can 
oppose  their  rudimentary  thumb  with  which  they  are  provided 
to  their  fingers,  so  that  their  paws  perform  the  offices  of  hands. 
The  great  length  of  their  hind  legs  makes  them  excellent  leapers  ; 
on  the  ground  their  progression  is  effected  altogether  by  leaping  ; 
and  to  rest,  they  sit  upon  their  hind  legs,  elevating  the  tail  and 
spreading  it  over  their  head  as  a  kind  of  canopy.  It  is  said  that 
they  avail  themselves  of  a  piece  of  bark  for  a  boat,  and  use  the 
(ail  as  a  sail  when  they  wish  to  cross  a  stream  ;  but  we  may  be 
permitted  to  believe  that  a  stream,  even  for  a  free  squirrel,  when 
uninfluenced  by  the  fear  of  danger,  will  always  be  a  barrier  that 
he  will  never  attempt  to  pass ;  and  if  he  were  forced  through 
fear  to  plunge  into  the  water,  swimming  would  be  his  only  re- 
source. The  voice  of  the  squirrel  is  a  sharp  cry,  and  sometimes 
he  utters  a  feeble  sound,  although  his  mouth  be  shut,  which  is 
said  to  be  a  sign  of  impatience  or  anger. 

24.  The  FLYING  SQUIRRELS, — Pten>rnys, — (winged  rat) — (Ptat 
4,  /?</.  8.)  have  on  each  side  of  the  body  a   prolongation    of  th 
skin,  which  extends  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  forms  a 
sort  of  parachute,  by  the  aid  of  which,  these  animals  can  sustain 
themselves  in  the  air  fir  a  few  seconds  and  make  extended  leaps. 
One  species  is  found  in  the  forests  of  Poland  and  i\ussia,  and  one 
in  North  America. 


24.  What  peculiarity  characterises  Flying  Squirrels  ?     Where   ore    thev 
found  ? 


dO  MARMrrS—DORMTCF. 


Tribe  of  7?a/*. 

25.  The  tribe  of  Rats  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small 
Rodentia  which  resemble  our  common  rats  in  the   most  impor- 
tant parts    of  their  organization,  and  are  the  most  carnivorous 
animals  of  this   order.     Their  fore   paws  are  in  general  termi- 
nated by  four  toes  which  are  well  developed,  and  a  tubercle  rep- 
resenting a    rudimentary  thumb ;  on  the  posterior  extremities 
there  are  five  complete  toes.     Most  of  them  live  in  holes. 

26.  The  principal  genera  of  this  group  are,  the   Marmot,  the 
Dar  mouse,  the  Hat  properly  so  called,  and  tne  Hatnstar. 

27.  The  Marmots — Aictomyx, — (bear-rat,)  or  mountain  rats, 
(Plate  4,  fig.  9.)  differ  in  many  respects  from  the  other  gnawers 
of  the  tribe  of  rats  ;  like  the  squirrels,  they  have  five  molar  teeth 
above  and  four  below,  all  studded   with  points ;  some  of  these 
animals  feed  on  insects  as  well  as  herbs      Their  form  is   heavy 
and  squat ;  the  head  is  flat  and  thick,  the  ears  round,  the  limbs 
short  and  stout,  the  tail  small,  and  their  coat  thick  and  coarse. 
Their  walk  is  clumsy,  and  they  run  badly,  but  they  can  flatten 
themselves  so  as  to  pass  through   narrow  openings.     They  dig 
with  readiness  a  deep  hole  into  which  many  individuals  retire 
during  winter,  a  season  which  they  pass  in  profound  lethargy, 
covered  in  a  bed  of  hay.     On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  they 
close  their  hole  by  heaping  up  earth  at  its  entrance ;  they  are 
then  very  fat,  and  their  fat  serves  for  their  nutrition  during  their 
lethargy.     They  do  not  store  provisions,  and  never  wander  far 
from  this  hole.     They  live  socially,  and  when  the  troop  is  out, 
they  place  a  sentinel  upon  some  elevated  point  to  give  notice  of 
the  approach  of  danger. 

28.  The  Common  Marmot,— Jirctomys  d/pinus, — is   found  in 
the  Alps,  just  below  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.     The  moun- 
taineers go  in  the  winter  to  take  them  in  their  holes ;  they  eat 
them  and  sell   their  skins,  at  a  low  price,  for  common  fur ;  it  is 
this  fur  which  the  little  Savoyards  who   beg  their  way  in  some 
European  towns,  often  carry  with  them.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
hare,  and  its  coat  is  yellowish  gray. 

29.  DORMICE, —  W//r»a?/.v, — (rat  with  a  pointed  nose,)  are  pretty 
little  animals  with  soft  fur.  a  hairy,  or  even  tufted  tail,  and  ani- 
mated look,  which,  like  squirrels,  live  on  trees  and  feed  on  fruits. 

25.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Rats  constituted  ? 

26.  What  a<e  the  principal  genera  of  t'  e  tribe  of  Rats  ? 

27.  What  are  -M-ir.i.ots?     What  are  their  habits?     Do  they  hibermte  7 

28.  Where  is  the  comnio.i  Marmot  found  ? 

5i9.  What  are  Dj.mice?     Wh.it  are  their  habits?     How  are  they  distin 
guished  ? 


DOR  M  1C  F!.— RATS.  31 


Like  the  Marmots,  they  pass  the  cold  season  in  a  deep  lethargic 
sleep,  rolled  up  in  a  ball  They  may  be  recognised  by  the  number 
of  their  molar  teeth,  which  is  four  on  both  sides  of  each  jaw. 

30.  The  Common   Dormouse, —  Myoxus    Glis, — (the  fat    Dor- 
mouse,) which  is  about  the  size  of  the  common  rat,  inhabits   the 
southern  parts  of  Kurope;  it  lives  in  the  great  forests,  and  in  the 
hollows  of  trees  and  rocks  constructs  a  retreat  which  it  lines  with 
moss,  and  in  which  it  deposites  provisions  to  be  ready  when  it 
awakes  in  the  spring.     In  some  parts  of  Italy  it  feeds  on  small 
animals ;  the  Romans  raised  and  fattened  this   species  for  the 
table. 

31.  The    Garden    Dormouse, — Myoxvs   Nitela,—is   another 
species   which  is  common  in  the   neighbourhood  of  Paris.     It 
frequents   espaliers,  (hedge-rows  of  fruit  trees)  and  retires  into 
cavities  in  orchard  walls ;  its  food  consists  of  fruits,  and  it  some- 
times commits  great  ravages. 

32.  Another  species  of  Dormouse, —  Myoxns  J?cellunariust — is 
of  the  size  of  a  small  mouse,  and  inhabits  the  borders  of  woods, 
hedges,  &c.;  like  the  squirrel,  it  prepares  a  bed  of  moss  for  the 
winter. 

33  RATS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  are  distinguished  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  their  molar  teeth,  which  are  three  throughout,  and  by  the 
long,  hard  tail.  These  animals  are  of  small  size,  and  feed  chiefly 
on  vegetable  substances  (such  as  grains  and  roots,)  but  they  also 
eat  animal  matter,  and  when  forced  by  hunger,  they  mingle  in 
fierce  battle  and  devour  each  other.  There  are  three  species 
which  are  common  in  houses,  the  Don*estic  Rat,  the  Surmulot,and 
the  Mouse. 

34.  The  Domestic  /?«/,— Mus  Ruttus,— was  not  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  appears  to  be  originally  from  America.  The  time  of 
its  introduction  into  Furope  is  not  known,  but  it  is  ascertained 
that  it  existed  in  great  numbers  in  the  places  which  the  Surmulot 
now  occupies  after  having  almost  entirely  destroyed  its  species. 
The  domestic  rat  has  become  quite  rare  in  Paris,  and  is  not  often 
found  except  on  farms  where  it  feeds  on  grain,  meal,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  of  all  kinds  that  it  meets.  Its  taste  for  animal  matter 
is  very  decided,  and  it  pursues  small  animals  In  country  houses 

30.  Where  is  the  cmim  <  n  Dormouse  found  ?  Whut  arc  its  Jiabi  s  ?  Wai 
it  known  to  thj  ancients? 

3J.  Where  is  the  g  irden  Dormouse  found  1     Whit  does  it  fetd  on? 

3:2.  Is  there  any  other  i-p'Cies  than  the  two  menti>  ned  ? 

33  What  arc  R.-its  properly  so  called  ?  What  do  they  feed  on  ?  How 
ruany  species  of  Rats  are  conun  n  in  houses  ? 

34.  Was  the  Domestic  R-t  known  to  the  ancients  When  was  it  iulru 
duced  in  to  Europe  ? 

R2 


\TS.-MICE. 


where  it  propagates,  it  is  really  a  scourge  by  the  damage  it  occa- 
sions by  eating  linen,  leather  harness,  bacon,  in  a  word,  every 
thing  that  falls  in  it's  way. 

35.  The  Snrntnlfif,     .tivsD.-cumauv** — (the  Norway  or  Brown 
rat,)  is  the  largest  of  tl.e  rats  ;  it  is  seven  inches  long,   without 
including  the  tail,  and  its  coat  is  reddish   brown.     Though  very 
abundant  in    Europe  at  the   present  day,  it  was  not  introduced 
there  till  sometime  in  the  eighteenth  century.     Vessels  trading  to 
India  carried  it  to  England,  whence  it  found  its  way  into  France 
and  all  other  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  wherever  Europeans 
have  settled  colonies.     About  the  environs  of  Paris,  brown  rats 
are  very  numerous  on  the  commons,  and  particularly  on- the  voirie 
of  Montfaucon,    where,  towards  evening,    they    may   be   seen 
entirely  covering  the  carcasses  of  horses  that  have  succumbed 
during  the  day  ;  they  are  also  found  in  the  sewers  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  markets,  and  in  all  places  where  animal  substances 
in  a  state  of  decomposition  are  accumulated  in  any  quantity,  and 
where  grain  is  abundant.     They  dig  holes  scarcely  deep  enough 
to  hold  their  bodies.* 

36.  The  Mouse, — Mn*  Mvtcvlus,—is  the  smallest  species  of 
rat  that  inhabits  our  dwellings,  and  it  is  the  only    one  that  was 
known  to  the  ancients.     In  the  wood-work  of  our  houses,  and  in 
old  walls  where  the  plaster  is  easily  detached,  these  little  animals 
excavate  galleries  of  greater  or  less  length,  in  which  they  habitu- 
ally dwell ;  they  feed  on  all  articles  whether  animal  or  vegetable, 
that  fall  in  their  way,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  tallow,  bacon, 
and  other   fat   substances.      Sometimes  they  are  found  wild  in 
the  woods,  where  they  feed  chiefly  on  acorns  and  beech-nuts. 

37.  The  .Wtt/o/,  or  frifld-uitnisr, — Mvs  *ylvaticus, — is  a  species 
of  the  same  genus  as  the  preceding,  which  is  intermediate   in 
size   between  the  rat  and   the  mouse,  but  it  does  not  visit  the 
habitations  of  man  ;  its  ordinary  dwelling  place  is  in  forests  where 
it  often  commits  considerable  havoc,  either  in  digging  up  the  acorns 

*  The  voirie  of  Mot  tfiucon,  or  commons,  is  the  place  where  the  filth  of 
the  c  ty  of  Paris  is  deposited,  and  where  dead  animils  arcfiayrtl  for  the  sake 
of  their  skin-,  and  thu  pirts  which  are  fit  for  tue  manufacture  of  glue,  «Stc 
It  has  been  said,  with  what,  truth  we  do  not  know,  that  tho  r.its  found  hen-, 
were  kil'ed,  and  sold  to  the  mast  rs  of  eating-houses,  who  served  them  to 
their  customers. 

35.  What   is   the    Sunuulot?     Was  this  rat  always  known  in  Europe  ? 
Where  is  it  originally  from?     Where  does  it  mo*t  abound  ?    What  does  this 
rat  feed  on  ? 

36.  What  is  the  Mouse  ?     Where  docs  it  dwell  ?     What  does  it  feed  upon 
when  wil  I  ? 

3"    What  is  the  Mulot?     What  are  its  habits? 


HAMSTERS.— FIELDMICE. 83 

or  beech-nuts  that  have  been  pi  mtel,  or  by  gnawing  the  bark  of 
young  trees.  It  also  does  considerable  damage  to  the  harvest,  in 
company  with  the  true  field  mouse,  by  cutting  the  stocks  of  the 
corn  (wheat,  &c.)  to  eat  a  few  grains  and  waste  the  rest.  These 
animals  also  store  provisions,  acorns,  filberts,  chestnuts,  &c,,  which 
they  deposite  in  holes  in  the  ground  about  a  foot  deep,  concealed 
by  some  bushes. 

38.  The  HAMSTERS  have  nearly  the  same  teeth  as  the  rats;  but 
their  tail  is  short  and  hairy,  and  both  sides  of  the   mouth  are 
hollowed  into  sacs  or  cheek-pouches,  like  certain  monkeys,    in 
which  they  carry  the  grain  upon  which  they  feed. 

39.  The    ('i)tinnnn    flams  *•/-, —  Criretus   Viilgaris, — (Plate   4, 
//>/.  10.)  is  larger  than  the  rat,  reddish  gray  above,  black  on  the 
flanks  and  underneath,  with  three  whitish  spots  on  each  side.     It 
feeds  on  roots  and  all  the  cereal  grains  cultivated  by  man ;  it  can 
however,  live  on  flesh,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  does  not  even 
spare  its   own   species.     It  digs  a  hole  with  two  galleries ;  an 
oblique  one,  to  carry  out  the  riddance  of  the  earth,  and  a  per- 
pendicular one  for  the   entrance  and  exit  of  the  animal ;  these 
channels  lead  to  different  circular  excavations  which  communicate 
with  each  other  by  horizontal  tunnels  or  galleries:  one  of  these 
chambers  is  furnished  with  a  bed  of  dry  herbs  which  serves  for 
the  retreat  of  the  animal,  and  the  others  are  designed  to  contain 
provisions  which  are  collected  in  the  warm  season  for  the  winter's 
use.     This  animal  lives  solitary,  but  is  numerous  in  Germany 
and  different  sandy  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.     It  is  injurious  to 
farmers  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  grain  it  collects, 

Tribe  of  Fieldmice. 

40.  This  little  group  is  nearly  related  to  that  of  the  rats  ;  their 
external  form  is  nearly  the  s;\rne,  but  their  molar  teeth  possess  a 
peculiar  conformation,  which  approaches  to  that  of  essentially  her- 
bivorous animals.     In  this  tribe  are  placed  Fieldmice  properly  so 
called,  Lemrniiiys,  ^T. 

41.  FIELDMICE   properly  so   culled, — jQrvicnla, — have  a    squat 
form,  the  same  number  of  toes  as  rats,  armed  with  hooked  nails  fit 
for  digging,  and  the  tail  is  hairy  and  about  the  length  of  the  body. 
There  are  several  species  known  in  France.     The  Campaynol, — 

38.  How  are  Hamsters  distinguished  ? 

39.  What  are   the   characters  of  the  co-ninon  Hamster?     What  does  it 
eat?     What  are  its  habits?     What  is  the  character  of  its  burrows  or  habi- 
tat'ons  'f 

40.  How  does  the  tribe  of  Fieldmice  differ  from  that  of  Rats? 

41.  How  are  Fieldmice  properly  so  called  characterised  I       What  if  thf 
Campagnol  ? 

8 


84     LEMMINGS.-  -j  ERBO  AS.-  >  R  A  T-  MOL  ES.— C  H I N  C  R I L  L  AS. 

Jtrvicola  rfrratis,  -(Mus  Arvalis,)  or  little  field-rat,  is  improperly 
called  .l'/?//«j£  in  some  provinces.  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  mouse, 
and  inhabits  holes  which  it  digs  in  the  fields.  Sometimes  it  is 
excessively  multiplied,  and  commits,  as  well  as  the  Mulott  great 
ravages. 

42.  The  Water  Rat,  — Mus  rfmphibws,— is  also  a  species  of 
Jlrvicola  ;  it  is  rather  larger  than  the  common  rat,  and  inhabits 
the  banks  of  streams,  but  it  neither  swims  nor  dives  well. 

43  The  LEMMINGS, — (*eorycltus, — (Mus  Leinmus  of  Linnaeus,) 
another  species  of  fieldmouse  which  is  found  in  Siberia,  are 
celebrated  for  the  distant  migrations  they  make  every  year  in 
numerous  troops ;  they  are  small  Rodentia  that  inhabit  the  shores 
of  the  Icy  Ucean,  and  travel  in  numerous  bands,  laying  waste 
every  thing  that  comes  in  their  way.  They  are  of  the  size  of 
the  rat,  and  their  colour  varies  from  yellow  to  black. 

Tribe  of  Jerboas. 

44.  This  tribe  consists  of  a  small  number  of  gnawers  that  con- 
siderably resemble  the  rats.     The  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the 
end :  but  they  are  most  remarkable  in  their  posterior  extremities, 
which,  in  comparison  with  the  anterior,  are  of  a  most  immoderate 
length.  (Pl<tte  4,fiy.  11)     They  are  met  with  from   Barbary  to 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Tribe  of  flat- Moles. 

45.  The  Rodentia  included  in  this  division  (Spalax.)  resem- 
ble the  Moles  both  in  their  habits  and  external  form ;  they  are 
essentially  diggers,  and  live  under  ground ;  they  feed  on  roots 
only. 

Tribe  of  Chinchillas. 

46.  The  Chinchillas  are  small  Rodentia  of  South  America,  that 
afford   a   most  beautiful  and  much  esteemed  fur,  which   were 
nevertheless,  unknown  to  naturalists,  until  modern  times.     In 
many  respects  they  are  intermediate  between  the  Fieldmice  and 
Hares7     Several  species  are  known,     The  Chinchilla   Laniyera 
is  the  only  one  whose  fur  is  esteemed ;  it  inhabits  the  mountains 
of  Peru  and  Chile.     [This  animal  is  smaller  than  the  rabbit,  and 
its  head,  which  is  ornamented  with  long   mustaches,  resembles 


42.  What  is  the  Wuter  Rat? 

43.  Whit  are  Lemmings'/     Whit  are  their  habits? 

44.  What  are  Jerboas  ?     Where  are  they  found? 

45.  Wh..t  animals  are  included  in  the  tribe  of  Hat- Moles  ? 

46.  vVhat  are  Chinchillas'     Where  are  they  found?     For  what  are  they 
falued  'f     How  are  they  taken  ?     Are  they  abundant  ? 


BEAVEPS.  85 


that  of  the  squirrel.  Its  ears  are  large  ;  its  paws  are  delicate,  and 
differ  little  in  length  ;  its  coat  which  is  of  a  beautiful  gray,  undu- 
lated with  white  above,  and  of  a  bright  gray  underneath,  is  com- 
posed of  extremely  tine,  soft  hair ;  and  its  tail  is  blackish,  par- 
ticularly at  its  end.  It  lives  in  burrows  and  feeds  principally  on 
bulbous  roots.  It  is  hunted  with  dogs  trained  to  drag  it  from  its 
hole  without  injuring  its  coat  It  is  found,  especially  in  the  neigh, 
bourhood  of  Coquimbo  and  Copiapo,  and  its  fur  is  sent  to  San- 
tiago and  Valparaiso,  whence  it  is  exported  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States ;  but  it  has  been  hunted  so  actively,  that  for  some- 
time, it  has  been  scarcely  seen,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  total 
destruction  of  the  race,  the  pursuit  of  the  animal  has  been  pro- 
hibited.] 

Trilte  of  Castors. 

47.  The  Rodentia  which  form  this  tribe,  are  distinguished  by 
the  conformation  of  their  teeth,  by  their  essentially  aquatic  mode 
of  life,  by  their  feet  having  five  toes,  and  the  hind  ones  being 
palmate.     They  are  divided  into  two  genera,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  that  of  CASTORS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED. 

48.  BEAVERS,  or  CASTORS  properly  so  called,  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  Rodentia  by  their  horizontally  flattened  tail,  which  is 
nearly  of  an  oval  form,  and  covered  with  scales.  (Plate  4,  fig  12.) 

49.  Beavers  are  large  animals  whose  mode  of  life  is  entirely 
aquatic,  their  feet  and  tail  enabling  them  to  swim  well :  they  feed 
chiefly  on  bark  and  other  hard  substances,  and  they  make  use  of 
their  strong  incisor  teeth  for  cutting  all  kinds  of  trees. 

50.  The    Beaver— Castor  /'t/W,— - (Plate  4,  Jig.   12.)  Of  all 
quadrupeds  bestows  most  time  and  labour  on  the  construction  of 
his  dwelling,  at  which  he  works  in  company,  in  the  most  solitary 
parts  of  North  America,  from  the  thirtieth  to  the  sixtieth  degree 
of  north  latitude.     He  is  also  met  with  in   Siberia,  Norway,  Ger- 
rpany,  and  in  France  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  and  Garonne. 

51.  These  animals  are  always  found  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers 
and  lakes ;  in  the  summer  they  inhabit  burrows  which  they  dig 
along  the  shores,  but  in  winter  they  retire  into  huts,  constructed 
with  the  greatest  care,  on  the  banks  or  in  the  midst  of  waters. 
In  general,  they  select  situations  where  the  waters  are  so  deep 
that  they  do  not  freeze  to  the  bottom,  and  prefer  running  water, 

47.  How  are  animals  of  the  tribe  of  C  s:ors  disliti  luishcd  ? 

48.  How  are  Bcav«.rs  dislingoisht.*!  fiom  other  Rod  i.lia? 

49.  What  is  the  mode  of  lite  of  Beavers?     What  is  t  >eir  fo  d  ? 

50.  For  what  is  the  Beaver  remarkable?     In  what  parts  of  the  world   ii 
the  Beaver  found  ? 

51.  How  do  th<  y  duell  ?     How  do  llry  build  their  huts  ? 


86  BEAVERS. 


because  th^y  cut  the  wood  necessary  for  their  building  above  the 
spot  where  they  work,  and  then  the  current  carries  it  where  it 
is  required.  If  the  water  is  stagnant,  they  at  once  commence 
their  houses;  but  if  it  is  running,  they  assemble  often  two  or  three 
hundred  in  a  gang,  and  first  form  a  shelving  dam  or  dyke,  to 
maintain  the  water  at  an  equal  height:  this  dam  is  formed  of 
branches  interlaced  with  each  other,  the  intervals  of  which  are 
filled  with  stones  and  mud,  and  plastered  over  with  a  thick  solid 
coat ;  it  is  commonly  ten  or  twelve  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  is 
sometimes  of  very  considerable  extent.  At  the  expiration  of  a  few 
years  it  is  usually  covered  with  vegetation  and  thus  converted 
into  a  substantial  hedge.  The  dam  being  finished,  they  separate 
into  small  parties  of  two  or  three  families  and  set  about  con- 
structing their  huts,  which  are  built  against  the  dam  in  the  same 
manner,  but  with  less  solidity  ;  each  hut  accommodates  two  or 
three  families ;  it  has  two  stories,  the  upper  one  being  dry  for  the 
residence  of  'the  animals,  and  the  lower  one  under  water,  for  the 
store  of  bark  upon  which  they  feed.  Only  the  latter  opens  ex- 
ternally, and  the  entrance  is  entirely  under  water.  Their  work 
is  carried  on  in  the  night  only,  but  with  astonishing  rapidity. 
When  the  season  of  snow  approaches,  the  Castors  assemble  in 
great  numbers  and  set  about  repairing  the  huts  which  they 
had  abandoned  in  the  spring,  or  construct  new  ones.] 

52.  [Beavers,  whose  coat  is  ordinarily  of  a  uniform  reddish 
brown,  but  sometimes  of  a  beautiful  black  and  at  others  white, 
are  provided  with  a  great  abundance  of  a  grayish,  soft  down  of  ex- 
treme fineness,  which  is  concealed  beneath  long  silky  hairs,  which 
resisting  the  water,  or  not  becoming  wet,  protects  them  against 
cold  and  humidity  ;  but  this  fur,  which  is  so  useful  to  them,  often 
becomes  the  cause  of  their  destruction  ;  because  it    is  of  great 
use  to  man,  and  to  procure  it  these  animals  are  actively  pursued. 

53.  Beaver  skins  are  an  important  article  of  commerce ;  they 
are  used  as  fur,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  hats;  the  most  beau- 
tiful are  from  those  animals  that  are  killed  in  winter  in  the  coldest 
parts  of  North  America.     A  single  skin  furnishes  about  a  pound 
and  a  half  of  down  which,  in  France,  is  worth  from   thirty-five 
to  forty  dollars  the  pound.     As  many  as  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
thousand  of  these  skins  have  been  imported  into  Europe  in  a 
single  year. 

54.  Castoreum,  an  article  of  commerce  also  furnished  by  these 
animals,  is  a  solid,  fragile  substance  of  a  strong  nauseous  odour 

52.  What  is  the  colour  of  the  Beaver?     Why  arc  Heavers  hunted  f 

53.  Wlut  is  the  use  of  Beaver  skins  ?    Are  they  cheap? 

54.  What  is  Castoreum? 


PORCUPINES.  87 


It  is  sold  in  the  pouch  in  which  it  is  naturally  formed.  A  Castor 
furnishes  about  two  ounces.  The  women  of  some  savage  tribes 
use  it  to  grease  their  hair,  and  in  Europe,  and  the  United  States, 
it  is  employed  as  a  medicine.  About  three  thousand  pounds  are 
annually  imported  into  France.] 

Tiibe  of  I'orcupincs. 

55.  Animals  of  the  tribe  of  Porcupines  are  recognised  at  first 
sight  by  the  stiff  and  pointed  quills  or  spines  with  which  their  back 
is  armed,  and  from  this  peculiarity  they  somewhat  resemble  the 
Hedgehogs.     Their  grunting  voice  and  thick  truncated   muzzle 
have  caused  them  to  be  compared  to  the  hog,  and  hence  their 
French  name,  I'orcs-Epirs. 

56.  PORCUPINES  PROPER,  —  Hystrix, — have  an  arched  or  more 
or  less  convex  head.     They  have  four  toes  before  and  five  be- 
hind, all  armed  with  stout  nails.     There  are  many  species  known. 
The   Ktnofx'an    1'orcn/tiue,  —  Hyxtric   Cristuta, — has  very    long 
spines  annulated  black  and  white ;  a  mane  composed  of  long 
hairs  occupies  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck.  The  tail  is  short,  and 
furnished  with  hollow  truncated  tubes  or  bristles,  suspended  to 
slender  tubercles,  which  make  a  noise  when  shaken  by  the  animal. 

57.  This  animal  avoids  inhabited  places,  and  selects  for  its  re- 
treat stony  arid  hi  locks  with  a  southern  or  southeastern  exposure, 
in  the  declivities  of  which,  it  excavates  deep  holes  with  many  out- 
lets, where  it  lives   in  profound  solitude  and  great  security.     It 
passes  the  day  concealed  at  the  bottom   of  its  burrow,  and  pro- 
vides for  its  wants  during  the  night  only.     Its  chief  food  consists 
of  berries,  fruits,  buds,  roots,  &c.     For  the  Porcupine  winter  is 
a  time  of  sleep  ;  but  its  lethargy  does  not  seem  to  be  very  pro- 
found, because  it  makes  its  appearance  on  the  first  bright  days  of 
spring. 

58.  It  was  believed  for  a  long  time  that  porcupines  had  the 
faculty  of  discharging  or  shooting  off  their  spines ;  but  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  they  are  at  times  accidentally  detached,  and  also  by  the 
flhock  they  receive  when  the  animal  raises  them  for  its  own  defence. 

59.  This  species  is  chiefly  met  with  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
and  the  southern  parts  of  the  Roman  States. 

55.  What  is  the  mo^t  striking  feature  of  the  Porcupine  ? 

56.  W  h;vt  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Porcupines  proper?     What  are  thu 
specific  characters  of  the  European  Porcupine  ? 

57.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Porcupine?    Upon  what  does  it  generally 
<ce<]  ? 

58.  Has  the  Porcupine  the  power  of  throwing  its  quills  or  spines  from  iU 
body? 

59.  In  what  part  of  the  world  is  the  Porcupine  found  ? 


83  HARE.— RABBIT. 


60.  Other  Rodentia  that  have  a  prehensile  tail  like  that  of  the 
Sapajous,  and  climb  trees,  are  ranged  at  the  side  of  Porcupines. 

Tribe  of  Hares. 

61.  The  Rodentia  of  which  this  tribe  is  composed,  differ  from 
other   animals  of  the  same  order  by  the  arrangement  of  their 
incisor  teeth,  which  are  double,  each  one  of  them  having  a  smaller 
one  behind  it.     They  have  five  toes  before  and  four  behind,  and 
the  soles  of  their  feet,  as  well  as  the  outside  of  their  mouth,  are 
furnished  with  hairs  like  the  rest  of  the  body. 

62.  The  HARES  PROPER, — Lcpvs, — are  recognised  by  their  long 
ears,  their  short  tail,  and  the  length  of  their  hind  feet.     They  are 
nocturnal  animals, and  of  all  their  senses,  that  of  hearing  appears 
to  be  the  most  perfect ;  they  are  extremely  timid,  and  fly  from  the 
slightest  danger.     Their  walk  consists  in  a  succession  of  leaps,  and 
their  run  only  differs  in  rapidity.  They  inhabit  woods,  copses,  rocks, 
and  sometimes  plains,  and  feed  on  vegetable  substances  which 
modify  the  taste  of  their  flesh,  according  as  these  may  be  more 
or  less  aromatic;  it  is  known  indeed,  that  such  is  the  cause  of  the 
difference  between  the  taste  of  the    wild   and   domestic   hare. 
Some  provide  for  their  individual  security,  and  that  of  their  young, 
by  excavating  deep  holes,  or  by  inhabiting  rents  and  hollows  in 
rocks,  while  others  content  themselves  with  a  furrow,  a  stump,  a 
copse,  or  the  trunk  of  a  hollow  tree. 

63.  The  Common  Hare, — Lepns  Timidna, — is  recognised  by 
a  yellowish  gray  coat,  having  ears  a  tenth  longer  than  its  head, 
tipped  with,  black,  and  the  tail  white,  with  a  black  line  above,  and 
of  the  length  of  its  thigh.     It  lives  alone  and  cannot  be  domesti- 
cated ;  it  differs  from  the  rabbit  in  not  digging  a  burrow,  but  is 
contented  with  a  hole,  the  situation  of  which  it  changes  accord- 
ing to  the  season. 

64.  The  Rabbit* — Lcpus  Cnniculus,—  is  smaller  than  the  hare, 
and  has  ears  shorter  than  the  head  and  without   the  black  tip; 
its  tail  is  also  shorter  than  the  thigh,  and  brown  above.    It  appears 
to  be  originally  from  Spain,  but  now  abounds  throughout  Europe. 
It  lives  in  troops  and  burrows  in  dry  soils.     It    accustoms  itseli 
to  the  domestic  condition,  and  in  time  assumes   very  various 
colours. 

60.  Are  there  any  other  gnawers  related  to  the  tribe  of  Porcupines « 
fil.  How  do  anima's  of  the  tribe  of  Hares  differ  from  other  Rodentia  ? 
62.  How  itre  Har«  s  proper  n  cognised  ?     What  are  thijr  habits? 

63  How  is  the  common  Hare  recognised? 

64  What  is  the  Rabbit? 


Gl'INEA-PIG.  -PELTRY. 83 

Tribes  of  Cubiais  and   Pacas. 

65.  The  Rodentia  that  constitute  these  two  tribes  belong  to 
America,  and  generally  resemble  each  other  in  form  ;  many  of 
them  however,  are  higher  on  their  legs  than  most  animals  of  the 
same  order. 

66.  The  Guinea-  Pig, — Mua  Porcellns  of  Linnaeus —belongs  to 
the  tribe  of  Cabiais.     This  small  animal,  which  is  originally  from 
South  America,  where  it  is  still  found  in  its  wild  state,  is  exten- 
sively multiplied  throughout  Kurope,  where,  in  some  houses,  it  is 
kept,  under  the  impression  that  its  odour  drives  away  rats. 

General  Remarks  on  Peltries. 

67.  Almost  all  the  peltries  or  furs  in  use,  are  derived  from  ani- 
mals of  the  two  orders  the  description  of  which  we  have  just  con- 
cluded, namely :  the  Carnaria  and  Rodentia. 

68.  The  furs  most  esteemed  are  those  in  which  the  long,  silky, 
thick   hairs  cover  a  considerable   quantity  of  down.     They  all 
come  from  cold  countries;  the  only  peltries  from  warm  regions 
are  those  with  smooth  hair.     Climate  has  very  great  influence 
upon  the  fur  of  animals;  when  nature  has  designed  them  to  live 
in  cold  countries,  they  have  a  thick  warm  fur,  while  in  hot  climates 
they  only  possess  short  dry  hairs  not  very  closely  set,  and  there 
is  no  soft  down  growing  up  between  these  hairs,  as  is  the  case  in 
the  first. 

G9.  The  seasons  also  exercise  an  influence  on  furs.  In  the 
summer  the  ordinary  hairs  are  not  so  long  nor  so  abundant  as  in 
winter;  and  it  is  only  in  this  latter  season  that  there  exists  any 
large  quantity  of  fur  at  their  base.  Sometimes  very  considerable 
changes  take  place  in  the  colour  of  their  hairs  at  different  seasons. 

70  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year  the  mammiferous  animals 
lose  their  hair  which  is  replaced  by  a  new  growth.  This  change 
usually  occurs  in  spring  and  autumn  ;  sometimes  it  occurs  with- 
out the  colour  of  the  coat  being  modified,  while  at  others,  the 
new  hair  bears  no  resemblance  whatever  to  the  old.  Thus  it  is 
in  the  north  that  the  Squirrel,  instead  of  always  preserving  its 
reddish  colour,  assumes  in  winter  a  pretty  gray.  The  Isatis,  or  blue 

65.  T.J  what  part  of  the  wmld  do  those  animal  <  belong,  tliat  arc   included 
in  ihe  tribes  of  Cabiais  anr)  Pncas? 
6(5.  What  is  the  Guinea-Pig? 

67.  What  orders  of  ar-imals  furni-h  mo  t  nolirie    ? 

68.  Has  climate  any  influence  on  the  fur  of  animals? 
|?9.  Wh;,t  effect  have  the  seasons  on  furs  ? 

70.  Are  mamrnifeious  ani.i  als  always  clo'hcd  in  the  same  hair  *         * 


90  PELTRY— FELT 


Fox  of  Siberia,  undergoes  changes  of  colour  not  less  consider- 
able, and  hence  its  winter  fur  is  very  much  sought,  while  its  sum- 
mer coat  is  almost  valueless. 

71.  Some  furs  are  supplied  by  animals  that  inhabit  France  and 
the  neighbouring  countries  ;  but  the  majority  of  them  come  from 
North  America,  or  Siberia 

72.  |  The   peltries,  which  are  called   in   France,  Sultfrigiue*, 
are  furnished   by  the  Fox,  the  Beech-Marten,  the  Pole-Cat,  the 
River  Otter,  the  Domestic  Cat,  the  Hare  and   Rabbit.     Most  of 
these  skins  are  dyed  in  imitation  of  the  more  precious  furs.     This 
mode  of  imparting  artificial  colours,    known   in   manufactures 
under  the  name  of  lustrriny,  is  generally  effected  by  the  succes- 
sive application  of  different  coats  of  colouring  matter,  by  the  aid 
of  a  brush  rather  than  by  immersion,  because  it  is  easier  in  this 
way  to  imitate  nature,  by  giving  the  different  tints  to   the  base 
and  point  of  the  hair.     This  business  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
Paris  and  Lyons,  with  the  greatest  degree  of  perfection.] 

73.  In  the  empire  of  Russia,  the  pursuit  of  animals  for  their  fur 
is  chiefly  carried  on  in  that  vast  extent  of  country  between  the 
east  of  the  Volga,  and  Kamtschatka,  and  also  on  the  north  west 
coast  of  America,  where  a  great  number  of  Sea  Ottters  are  taken, 
the  fur  of  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  principally  sold  to  the 
Chinese.     Siberia  furnishes  different  species  of  foxes,  the  skins  of 
which  are  often  of  great  value  (such  as  that  of  the  Jsatis  or  blue 
fox,  the  black  fox,  &c.)  the  marten,  the  sable,  the  ermine,  &c ; 
bears  also  furnish  a  good  proportion  of  peltries. 

74.  The  immense  forests  of  the  north,  east,  and  west  of  America 
furnish  beaver,  marten,  river  otter,  bear  skins,  &c. 

75.  The  annual  sale  of  peltries  on  an  average  of  four  years, 
in  London,   is  nearly  five  hundred  thousand  skins  of  various 
kinds,  which  affords  some  general  notion  of  the  value  of  the  fur 
trade. 

Of  the  manufacture  of  Felt. 

76.  The  skins  of  many  animals  of  the  order  of  Rodentia,  not 
only  serve  for  peltry,  but  are  also  employed  in   the  manufacture 
of  fur  hats.     Hairs  have  the  property  of  mixing  and  matting  so 

71.  What  count  ies  furnish  most  fur? 

72.  Do  the  furs  offend  for  sale  always  possess  their  natural  c<  lours? 

73.  In  \vhat  parts  of  the  Russian  Empire  are  animals  most  hunted   tot 
.heir  fur? 

74.  What  peltries  are  obtained  from  North  Ameripa? 

75.  What  is  the  number  of  fur  skins  annually  sold  in  London? 

76.  What  is  Felt? 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HATS. 91 

closely  together  when  worked,  that  very  substantial  tissues  may 
he  formed  of  them,  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  what  is  termed  felt 
is  produced. 

77.  Fur  hats  are  manufactured  principally  from  the   down  of 
the  Rabbit  and  Hare;  formerly  a  great  deal  of  the  hair  of  Cas- 
tors was  employed,  but  its  high  price  has  driven  it  almost  entirely 
out  of  use. 

78.  [The  manufacture   of  hats  of   felt  is  quite  simple,   con- 
sisting of  a  scries  of  three  operations,   namely;    the   cutting 
and  preparation  of  the  hair,  pressing,  and  dressing.     In  France, 
women  are  usually  employed  in  the  first  part  of  the  work :  they 
first  remove  the  hair  that  covers  the  fur,  and  then  pass  the  skin 
to  a  workman  whose  business  it  is  to  wet  the  fur  or  down  with 
a  liquid,  composed  of  quicksilver  dissolved  in  weak  nitric  acid. 
The  object  of  this  operation  is  to  increase  the  felting  property  of 
the  hair.     When  this  is  done,  the  skins  are  dried  by  a  stove,  and 
then  handed  to  the  cutters  or  shearers,  who,  provided    with  a 
cutting  instrument  of  a  particular  form,  detach  the  down  from 
the  back  and  flanks  of  the  skin.     The  hair  thus  prepared  is  de- 
livered to  the  hatter  who  proceeds  to  felting      For  this  purpose 
he  places  on  a  table  a  quantity  of  down  sufficient  to  make  a  hat, 
and  begins  the  work  by  an  operation  called  bowiuy:  he  is  pro- 
vided with  a  sort  of  large  bow,   which   is  suspended    from  the 
ceiling,  the  string  of  which  he  passes  into  the  heap  of  hair  and 
causes  it  to  vibrate.     By  this  means  he  throws  into  the  air   all 
the  delicate  filaments  which  constitute  the  down,  separates,  and 
mixes  them  in  every  way.     The  light  mass  thus  obtained  is  then 
spread  on  a  cloth  or  leather,  and  pressed  in  every  direction.     By 
this  process  the  hair  is  by  degrees  more  intimately  mixed,  and  be- 
gins to  felt.     When  this  is  over,  we  have  a  large  slightly  consis- 
tent cake  which  is  then  kneaded  or  worked,  taking  the  precaution 
to  dip  it,  from  time  to  time  in  hot  water  slightly  sharpened  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  This  kneading  or  working  is  performed  on  an  inclined 
table  or  board  placed  around  the  boiler,  and  is  executed   by  the 
hand, -a  wooden  roller  or  a  brush.     In  proportion,  as  the  hair  felts, 
the  cake  becomes  more  and  more  dense,  and  by  working  it  in  one 
direction  more  than  the  other,  it  is  made  to  assume  an  oval  shape. 
Generally  a  cake  or  foundation  of  common  hair  is  first  prepared, 
and  afterwards  gilded;  that  is  to    say,  there  is    incorporated 
upon  its  surface  a  coat  of  finer  hairs,  which  are  kneaded    much 
less,   so  that  they  remain  partially  free,  and  constitute  a  bed  or 
layer  of  soft  down,  which  hatters  call  the  feather  or   nap.        For 
the  giUjiug,  they  use  about  an  ounce  of  the  fine  fur  of  the  Russian 

77.  What  annuals  furnish  the  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  fur  aats? 

78.  What  is  the  process  of  manufacturing  hats? 


92  GLUE.— ORDER  OF  EDENTATA. 


Hare.  One  half  of  this  quantity  of  Beaver  hair  covers  as  much, 
and  produces  a  much  handsomer  effect ;  hut  from  its  great  price, 
it  is  seldom  used  except  in  mixture  with  other  hair.  Finally,  to 
complete  the  manufacture  of  a  hat,  the  felt  is  softened  by  steam, 
and  formed  on  wooden  blocks;  then  it  is  "dyed,  and  its  interior 
surface  glued  to  impart  to  it  greater  firmness.  This  branch  of 
manufacture  is  carried  on  almost  every  where  in  France ;  but  is 
most  extensive  in  Paris  and  Lyons.  There  are  about  1,100  hat 
manufactories  in  France,  in  which  17,000  workmen  find  employ- 
ment, and  the  annual  product  of  their  labor  is  estimated  at  nine- 
teen millions  of  francs,  (or  more  than  three  and  a  half  millions 
of  dollars;)  but  the  business  has  decreased  in  importance  of  late, 
owing  to  the  general  use  of  silk  hats. 

79.  After  the  hair  and  fur  have  been  removed  from  them,  these 
skins  are  converted  into  glue.  The  skin  is  insoluble  in  water, 
under  ordinary  circumstances ;  but  if  it  be  boiled  for  a  long  time 
in  that  liquid,  it  softens,  dissolves,  and  is  transformed  into  a  par- 
ticular product  called  yt-/atitiet  which  on  cooling  forms  a  jelly 
more  or  less  solid.  The  same  is  true  of  the  tendons  and  various 
other  tissues  of  the  animal  economy,  and  the  gelatine  thus  ob- 
tained constitutes  common  glue.] 

* 

LESSON    VIII. 

ORDER    OP    EDENTATA. — Zoological  Characters.  —  Division    into 

three  families. 

FAMILY  OF  TARDIGRADA  — Organization. — Habits. — .$/,  or  Sloth. 
FAMILY  OP  ORDINARY  EDENTATA — (rfnnadillosuflnt-eaters,  Manis.) 
FAMILY  OF  MONOTREMATA. — Peculiarities  of  their  Organization. 

— Omithorynchns. — Echidna. 
ORDER  OF  PACHYDERMATA. — Zoological  Characters. — Peculiarities 

of  their  Organization — Division  into  three  families. 
FAMILY    OF  PROBOSCIDIANA. — Genus  Elephant. — Organization. — 

Habi  s. —  Use. — Ivory,  (Elephants  ofrfsia,  Africa,  and  Siberia) 

ORDER     OF     EDENTATA. 

1.  Under  this  head  is  placed  a  considerable  number  of  am- 
mals  remarkable  for  a  certain  slowness  and  want  of  agility  owing 
to  the  position  of  their  extremities  In  general  their  toes  are 

79.  Are  the  skins  of  any  use  after  the  fur  and  hair  have  been  removed  from 
them?  What  is  ylue? 

1.  What,  is  the  distinctive  character  of  animals  belonging:  to  the  order 
Edentata  ?  How  is  this  order  divided  ?  How  is  the  Tardigrada  diatin- 
jrnished  from  the  ordinary  Edentata'  (See  tuhL'.)  Row  are  the  Monotre 
m-ta  distinguished  from  the  otlur  two  families  of  this  order? 


ORDER  OF  EDENTATA.—  SLOTHS.  93 

enveloped  in  stout  nails  upon  which  they  walk  with  difficulty. 
Their  common  distinctive  character  is  the  wanting  of  teeth  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  jaws,  that  is,  the  incisor  teeth.  (Plate  4.  fiy.  3.) 
Sometimes  the  canine  and  molar  teeth  are  also  wanting,  so  that 
the  animal  is  then  entirely  edentate.  This  order  is  divided  into 
three  families  which  may  be  recognised  by  the  characters  enu- 
merated in  the  folio  wing  table  : 

(Families) 

f     The  face  very  short.     TARUIGRADA. 
f      Without  a  cloaca,  f 

c*  _  j  and  having  The     muzzle    long,  )        ORDINART 

1  [and  pointed.  f       EDENTATA. 

(^     Provided  with  a  cloaca.  (1.)       ....     MONOTREMATA. 

(1  )  NOTE. — That  is  to  say,  having  the  rectum  and  duct  for  t'  e  passage  of 
the  urine  opening  into  a  common  cavity,  called  cloaca  which  lias  a  single 
outlet,  as  is  the  case  in  birds  and  reptiles. 

FAMILY  OF  TARDIGRADA,  OR  SLOTHS. 

2.  The   SLOTHS, —  Brady  pus, — bear  some  resemblance  to  de- 
formed and  stupified  monkeys,  and  they  have  in  their  whole  being 
something  so  disproportioned  and  strange,  thai  at  first  sight  they 
might  be  taken  as  the  product  of  some  fantastic  freak  of  nature  ; 
but  when  these  anomalies  are  closely  studied,  we  find  they  have 
their  use,  and  that  they  all  tend,  however  grotesque  they  seem,  to 
adapt  the  organs  of  the  animal  to  the  purposes  for  which  its  kind 
of  life  has  designed  them. 

3.  When  on  the  ground,  nothing  is  more  awkward,  more  un- 
graceful and  powerless  than  the  sloths.     Their  short,  stout  body 
is  borne  on  extremities  so  unequal   in  length,  that,  in  order  to 
walk,  ihe  animal  is  obliged  to  tread  on  its  elbows ;  the  pelvis  is 
broad,  and  the  thighs  are  directed  so  much  outwards,  that  they 
cannot  bring  the  knees  together ;  at  the  same  time  their  hind  feet 
are  articulated  so  obliquely  upon  the  legs  that  they  only  touch  the 
ground  by  their  external  edge ;  and  the  toes,  joined  together  by 
the  skin,  do  not  show  except  by  their  enormous  hooked    nails, 
which  are  flexed  when  at  rest,  and  they  possess  so  little  move- 
ability  that  at  a  certain  age  the  first  phalanges  become  soldered  to 
the  bones  of  the  metacarpus  and  metatarsus.     The   sitting  and 
vertical  position  is  least  inconvenient  to  them,  but  their  head  being 
in   a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  body,  their  mouth  then  looks  up- 
wards, rendering  it  very  difficult  for  them   to  graze  upon  tne 
ground ;  add  to  this  that  their  flexor  muscles  are  much  nioi'e 

2.  Are  Sloths  really  misshapen  and  illy  formed  animals? 
3.  What  are  the  general  peculiarities  or'  the  conformation  of  the  SlotLn  i 
How  do  they  feed  ? 

S2 


94 SL  YT  US.— ARM  A  PI  LLOS. 

powerful  than  their  extensors,  the  latter  being  those  which  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  body'  when  walking,  and  that  their  motions  are 
extremely  slow,  and  we  can  then  form  an  idea  of  the  restraint 
to  which  the  mode  of  conformation  of  these  animals  must  subject 
them,  when  placed  under  the  same  circumstances  in  which  most 
quadrupeds  live  and  move  without  inconvenience.  But  it  would 
be  wrong  to  believe  that  nature  has  made  any  imperfect  or 
grotesque  beings;  it  is  altogether  otherwise;  she  has  designed 
the  Sloths  to  live  hooked  to  branches  of  trees,  and  in  this  position, 
in  which  the  most  ordinary  quadrupeds  would  be  quickly 
fatigued,  the  anomalies  of  structure  we  have  just  pointed  out, 
become  so  many  happy  provisions  to  enable  these  edentata  to 
climb  and  cling,  with  the  least  possible  muscular  effort,  and  to 
facilitate  the  prehension  of  their  food,  suspended  over  their  heads. 

4.  The  dental  system  of  these  animals  also  possesses  distinctive 
peculiarities;  their  canines  are  long  and  sharp,  and  their  molars 
are  cylindrical.     Their  stomach  is  divided    into   four    pouches 
analogous  to  the  four  stomachs  of  the  Ruminantia.     They  have 
two  mammae  on  the  chest  and  only  give  birth  to  one  young  one 
at  a  tim->,  which  is  carried  on  the  back.      They  feed  on   leaves. 
They  inhabit  the  forests  in  the  anterior  of  South  America.     The 
most  remarkable  species  of  the  many  that  are  known,  is  the 
•#/,    or  the    Tarre   Fingered   Sloth, —  Brady-pus   Truicujylus, — 
(/'lute  4,  fig.  1.)  It  is  the  only  mammal  that  has  more  than  seven 
cervical  vertebra  ;  it  has  nine.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  its 
arms  are  twice  as  long  as  its  legs,  and  the  hair  which  covers  its 
back  is  long,  coarse,  without  elasticity,  and  resembles  withered 
grass.     Its  name  is  derived  from  its  cry. 

FAMILY  OF  ORDINARY  EDENTATA. 

5.  Animals  of  this   family   are  recognised   by  their   pointed 
muzzle.     Of  the  genera  composing  this  family,  the 

6.  1st.  ARMADILLOS,  —  Diisypm^— (Plate  4,  /fy.  2  )     Are  very 
singular  animals,  having  the  head,  the  body,  and  very  often  the 
tail,  covered   by  a  hard,  scaly  coat,  composed  of  compartments 
like  mosaic.     This  substance  which  may  be  considered  as  agglu- 

'  tinated  hair,  forms  one  shield  on  the  front,  a  second  very  large 
and  convex  one  on  the  shoulders,  a  third  similar  to  the  preceding 
on  the  croup,  and,  between  these  two  shields,  several  rnoveable 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  thtir  teeth?     Is  there  any  thing  remarkable 
in  the  conformation  of  the  stuma*  h  ?     Where  are  S.oths  found?     What  ii 
the  most  remarkable  species  kno\\n?     For  what  feature  of  its  organization, 
compared  with  other  mauimils,  i.s  the  Sluth  remarkable  ? 

5.  How  are  the  Edentata  lecogn  scd  ? 
6    Whdt  are  Armadillos  ? 


ANT-EATERS.— MANIS.  95 


parallel  bands,  which  give  the  body  the  faculty  of  bending;  the 
tail  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  succession  of  rings;  and  some- 
times, like  the  legs,  only  with  different  tubercles  ;  a  few  scatter- 
ing hairs  grow  between  the  scales,  or  on  parts  of  the  body  that 
are  not  covered  by  these  plates.  These  animals  have  large  ears, 
and  large  nails;  the  number  of  the  latter  is  always  five  behind; 
and  sometimes  four,  and  at  others,five  before.  The  armadillos 
vary  in  size,  from  that  of  a  badger  to  that  of  a  hedgehog;  they 
are  stout  in  the  body  and  low  on  their  legs.  They  are  all  origin- 
ally from  the  hot  or  temperate  parts  of  America;  they  burrow, 
and  feed  partly  on  insects,  partly  on  vegetables  and  in  part  on 
dead  bodies. 

7.  2nd.  The  ANT-EATFRS, — Myrmecophnga^ — inhabit  the  same 
countries  as  the  armadillos,  but  are  readily  distinguished  from 
them,  because  their  body  is  hairy  like  that  of  most  mammals,  and 
their  muzzle, drawn  out  in  a  long  cylindrical  tube,  is  terminated 
by  a  small  mouth,  which  is  entirely  without  teeth.  Their  jaws, 
which  are  very  long,  they  can  scarcely  separate  from  each  other, 
nor  can  they  use  them  to  seize  or  compress  their  food  ;  but  they 
are  provided  with  a  very  long  filiform  tongue,  which  they  can 
project  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  mouth,  and  which 
always  being  covered  with  a  viscid,  gluey  humor,  serves  them 
to  seize  the  ants  and  other  insects  upon  which  they  feed.  By  the 
assistance  of  their  strong,  trenchant  nails,  which  vary  in  number 
according  to  the  species,  the  ant-eaters  tear  up  the  nests  of  the 
Termites,  or  white  ants,  and  at  the  moment  these  little  insects 
sally  forth  in  crowds  from  their  retreat,  to  form  a  rampart  and 
defend  themselves,  they  protrude  upon  them  their  viscid  tongue, 
and  drawing  it  in  again  suddenly,  convey  them  into  their  mouth. 
When  at  rest,  these  nails,  which  serve  also  as  defensive  arms,  are 
folded  back  against  a  callosity  on  the  wrist,  and  the  animal  only 
rests  its  foot  on  the  side,  and  its  gait  is  slow.  Some  species  have 
a  prehensile  tail,  by  which  they  suspend  themselves  from  branches 
of  trees  ;  the  largest  species,  called  Tamamrir,  does  not  possess  this 
faculty;  it  is  four  feot  long,  and  inhabits  low,  humid  places. 

3d.  The  MANIS,  or  PANGOLINS,  (I'/ate  4,  //V.  4) — are  without 
teeth,  have  a  very  extensible  tongue,  and  Jive  on  ants  and  termites 
like  the  preceding ;  but  their  body,  extremities  and  tail,  are 
covered  with  large  trenchant  scales,  disposed  like  tiles,  and 
which  are  raised  when  they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball  to  avoid 
danger ;  a  few  long  bristles  grow  at  the  base  of  these  scales. 
They  all  belong  to  the  old  continent,  Asia  or  Africa. 

7.  What  are  Ant  enters  ?      Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?      How  do  they  seue 
fneir  prey  ? 

8.  VVIiiit  is  the  Manis  ?     How  does  the  Munis  differ  from  the  Ant-eater  T 


96 ECHIDNA —ORNITHORYNCHUS. 

FAMILY  OF  MONOTREMATA. 

9.  It  includes  animals  of  a  strange  construction,  which  unite 
the  characters  of  the  mammal  with  those  of  the  oviparous  ani- 
mals, and  whose  place  in  the  classification  of  mammalia  is  still  a 
subject  of  controversy  with  some  naturalists.     The  monotremata, 
like  birds,  have  but  one  opening  for  the  escape  of  excrement 
and  urine ;  but  there  is  found   under  the  belly   two  glandular 
masses,  which  most  naturalists  consider  to  be  mammas  ;  besides 
the  five  nails  on  all  the  feet,  the  males  have  on  the  hind  legs  a 
peculiar  spur  traversed  by  a  canal  from  which  issues  a   liquid, 
which  is  secreted  by  a  gland  adhering  to  the  thigh.     It  is  asserted 
that  wounds  inflicted  by  them  are  poisonous.     The  accounts  of 
travellers  and  of  the  natives  of  the  countries  which  they  inhabit, 
seem  to  establish  that  they  lay  eggs  like  birds ;  but  this  is  still 
doubtful. 

10.  They  are  peculiar  to  New  Holland  and  Van  Dieman's 
land.     This  singular  family  contains  two  genera. 

11.  1st.  The  ECHIDNA  resemble  the  Hedgehogs,  because  they 
are  covered  above  with  numerous  spines  mingled  with  hairs,  and 
below  they  have  hair  only.     The  body  is  stout  and  short,  the  neck 
is  scarcely  perceptible,  the  tail  is  merely  a  tubercle  covered  with 
spines ;  their  long  muzzle  terminated  by  a  small  mouth,  contains 
a  very  long  tongue,  which  they  protrude  to  seize  insects,  upon 
which  they  feed ;  they  have  no  teeth,  but  their  palate  is  armed 
with  several  ranges  of  little  spines  directed  backwards;  they  have 
short  feet  armed  with  nails  for  digging.     These  animals  readily 
excavate  the  earth,  and  form  subterraneous  abodes  near  to  trees. 
Like  the  hedgehogs,  they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball. 

12.  2d.  The  ORNITHORYNCHUS, — (Mate  4.  fig.  5.) — has  a  small 
elongated  body,  a  small  head,  a  very  strong  tail  which  is  short, 
flattened,  and,  at  its  root,  as  wide  as  the  body  of  the  animal, 
like  that  of  the  Beaver ;  it  is  covered  with  hair,  and  the  extremi- 
ties are  very  short,  and    the  anterior  widely    separated    from 
the  posterior  ones      The  muzzle  is  terminated  by  a  horny  beak 
like  that  of  a  duck,  and  like  it  the  edges  are  provided  with  small 
transverse  plates ;  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  only,  it  has  two 
teeth  without  roots  and  flat  crowns,  on  each  side  of  both  jaws ; 
the  tongue  is  large  and  soft,  the  nares  are  round,  situate  towards 

P.  Wh  I  is  pecu  iar  in  animals  of  the  family  of  Monotremata? 

10.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  ure  the  Moi.otremata  fuund  ?     How  many 
gen'  ra  does  this  family  include  ? 

11.  Wh.t  are  Echidna?     What  are  th- ir  habits? 

12.  What  i<  the  Ornit'  orynchus  ?     What  are  its  peculiarities  ?     What  are 
Hs  hab.ts  '     Wh  n  i>  it  ;ounJ  ? 


PACIIYDERMATA. 


the  superior  extremity  of  the  horny  beak;  the  neck  is  short,  ami 
the  general  form  of  the  body  is  nearly  cylindrical.  The  fore  feet 
have  a  membrane  which  not  only  unites  the  toes,  but  is  carried 
considerably  beyond  the  nails ;  on  the  hind  feet  the  membrane 
terminates  at  the  root  of  the  nails.  As  might  be  anticipated  from 
what  we  have  said  of  their  conformation,  the  Ornitkorynclii  are 
aquatic  animals ;  they  inhabit  the  marshes  and  rivers  in  the  in- 
terior of  New  Holland,  and  live  like  ducks,  (if  we  may  thus  apply 
the  word,)  by  sifting  the  mud  to  separate  from  it  insects  and  Iarva3. 
The  species  best  known  is  the  Ontithorynclius  Paradoxua. 


ORDER     OF     PACHYDERMATA. 


13.  The  animals  comprised  in  this  order  are  remarkable  for  the 
hard  thick  hide  with  which  most  of  them  are  covered  :  they  are 
•unyiilutc  mammals,  (that  is,  the  extremity  of  the  foot  is  enveloped 
in  a  very  large  nail,  constituting  a  hoof;)  they  have  generally  a 
simple  stomach  and  do  not  ruminate. 

14.  Their  teeth  present  great  varieties  in  form  and  structure  ; 
in  some,  the  incisors  are  trenchant,  in  others  they  are  wanting  ; 
and  in  others  again  they  are  replaced  by  tusks.     The  same  is  true 
of  the  canines ;  while  some  resemble  ordinary  canines,  others  be- 
come powerful  and  dangerous  defensive  weapons,  and  others 
again  want  them  altogether.     The  molars  have  wide  irregular 
surfaces  suited  for  grinding. 

15.  They  are  entirely  without  a  clavicle  and  are  incapable  of 
bending  the  fingers  (toes)  which  are  in  number  either  five,  or  three, 
or  only  one,  and  rarely  two.     The  Order  of  P*chydermata  in- 
cludes the  largest  terrestrial  mammals  known.     Except  the  Horse, 
they  are  all  clumsy,  and  have  a  heavy,  indolent  gait ;  are  very 
dirty,  and  particularly  fond  of  wallowing  in  the  mud  ;  they  con- 
tinuan'y  dwell  in  troops,  in  warm  covered  places,  in  marshy  situa- 
tions, where  they  find  aquatic  stalks  and  roots  suited  to  their  wants; 
sometimes  the  neck  is  very  short,  but  then,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Elt-pharif,  they  are  provided  with  a  trunk  capable  of  raising  from 
the  ground  all  objects  which  they  wish  to  convey  to  the  mouth  ; 
or,  remaining  almost  constantly  in  the  water,  they  can,   without 
stooping,  catch  the  leaves  and  stalks  floating  on  its  surface. 

13.  How  are  animals  of  the  order  of  Puchydermata   characterised?     Do 
tfjey  chew  the  cud? 

14.  Whut  is  the  character  of  the  d<  ntal  s-ystem  of  animals  of  thi5  order? 

15.  What  kind  of  a  clavicle  have  the  Pachyrlcrmata  ?     What  is  the  num- 
ber of  their  toes  ?     What  are  their  general  hubi.i  ? 


!13  PROEOSCIDIANA. 


16.  These  animals,  which  resemble  each  other  in  the  general 
features  of  their  organization,  are  still  distinguishable   by  impor- 
tant particulars,  which  has  made  it  necessary  to  divide  them  into 
three  families;  the  Proboscidian  a,  the   Ordinary   Pac/iydrrnnita, 
and  the  Sotiptdes,  which   may  be  recognised  by  the  following 
characters : 

(Families.) 

JHavinor  tusks,  a  prehensil    trunk  and  )  D 
five  tocBBon  all  the  feet.  [  PROBOSCIDUXA. 

Not  having  a  pre-     f   Having  at  least   "}  p 
j  Inn  ile   Mink,    and  )  two  toes  and    at  I1™     KRMATA 

not  having  five  toes  j         most  four.        J      °RDINAIIIA' 
I,      on  a.l  the  ket.       (_  A  single  toe  apparent.    SOLIPEDES. 

FAMILY  OF  PROBOSCIDIAN  A. 

17.  These  are   Packydermata  with  a  trunk  and  tusks.     They 
have  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  but  incrusted  in  a  sort  of  hoof  of 
callous  skin  ;  their  nails  only  are  apparent.     They  have   neither 
canine  or  incisor  teeth,  but  they  have  in  the  upper  jaw  two  tusks 
of  enormous  size;    the  mammae,  two  in  number,  are  placed  upon 
the  chest.     This  family  includes  one  living  genus  only. 

18.  The  Genus  KLEPHANT, — Ekpha^—'Yhis  genus  (Plate  5, 
fg.  1,  and  2.)  comprises  animals  of  gigantic  size,  naturally  mild 
and  docile  in  disposition,  which  enables  them  readily  to  bear  the 
domestic  condition.     The  amplitude  required  by  the  alveoli  of 
the  upper  jaw  to  contain  the  two  tusks,  elevates  it  so  much,  and 
at  the  same  time  shortens  the  bones  of  the  nose,  that  the  nares, 
in   the  skeleton,  are  found  near  the  top  of  the  face ;  but  in  the 
living  animal  they  are  prolonged  into  a  cylindrical  trunk,  consist- 
ing of  a  double  tube,  composed  of  fibres  and  many  small  muscles 
variously  interlaced,  which  is  moveable  in  every  direction  and 
terminates  above  by  an  appendix  in  the  form  of  a  finger.     This 
trunk,  which  communicates   with  the  nasal    fossa?,   serves   the 
Elephant  to  seize  hold  of  everything  he  wishes  to  convey  to  the 
mouth,  to  pump  up  his  drink,  and  then  pour  it  into  his  throat ;  it 
thus  compensates  for  the    shortness  of  his  neck.     By  means  of 
this.curious  instrument,  the  Elephant  can  uproot  trees,  untie  knots, 

16.  Into  what  families  is  the  order  of  Pachydermata  divided?     What  are 
the  family  distinctions  of  the  Proboscidians  ?     In  what   particulars   do   the 
Pachyderniat.)  Ordmaria  differ  from  the  Proboscidiana  ?      What   are  the 
family  distinctions  of  the  Solipcdes  ? 

17.  What  are  Proboscidians  ?     How   are  th  y   recognised?     Where  are 
the  mammae  situate?      What  number  of  gem-ra  is  included  in  this  family  ? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  animals  belonging  to  the  genus  of 
Elephants?     Whit  is   the   trunk?     What  functions  are  performed  by  the 
trunk? 


ELEPHANTS.  99 


open  a  lock,  and  even  write  with  a  pen.  The  eyes  are  small, 
and  the  pupil  round  ;  the  ears  a,re  wide  and  lie  close  against  the 
head,  but  quite  moveable ;  the  parietes  of  the  cranium  contair? 
great  vacuities  which  augment  the  size  of  the  head,  and  render 
the  front  projecting;  the  skin  is  thick,  hard,  and  wrinkled,  and 
almost  without  hair  ;  the  tail  is  small.  These  animals  have  sharp 
sight ;  their  hearing  is  quick,  their  sense  of  smell  delicate,  their 
intelligence  developed,  their  perception  ready,  their  prudence  ex- 
treme :  they  remember  kindness  as  well  as  harshness  Their  gait 
is  heavy,  but  the  length  of  their  steps  gives  rapidity  to  their  march. 

19.  Although  the  Elephant  is  the  most  vigorous  and  most  power- 
ful of  quadrupeds,  in  a  state  of  nature  he  is  neither  cruel  nor 
formidable.     Peaceful  as  he  is  brave,  he  never  abuses  his  power, 
or  exerts  his  strength,  except  in  his  own  defence ,  he  is  rarely 
seen  alone  in  the  desert.     The  herds  usually  consist  of  from  forty 
to  one  hundred  Elephants.    The  oldest  marches  at  the  head  of  the 
troop,  and  the  next  in  age  watches  the  rear. 

20.  It  has  been  said,  the  Elephant  never  lies  down  ;  but  this  is 
an  error ;  he  lies  on  his  side,  and  sleeps  profoundly. 

21.  Elephants  are  tamed   when  taken  young;  they  may  be 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  transport.     They  carry  about  two 
thousand  pounds  weight,  and  will  travel  without  being  very  much 
fatigued,  a  distance  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  leagues.     These  ani- 
mals swim  well ;  they  live  to  the  age  of  nearly  two  hundred  years. 

22.  Two  species  of  Elephants  are  known:  1st.  The  Indian  or 
Asiatic  Elephant, — Elephas  7/^/cw,— has  an  oblong  head,  con- 
cave front,  ears  of  middling  size,  and  four  nails  on  the  hind  feet. 
(Plate  5.  fig.   1.)     It  is  met  with  in  all  the  warm  parts  of  India, 
where  the  natives  pursue,  take,  tame,  and  employ  it  as  a  beast  of 
burthen  and  draught.     Its  tusks  often  remain  very  short. 

23.  2d.     The    Ajricnn   Elephant,  —  Efepftax    ./9/nYani/ir, — 
( Plate  5,  fig.  2  )  has  a  round  head,  a  convex  front ;  the  ears  a»e 
large,  and  there  are  but  three  nails  on  the  hind  feet.     It  inhabits 
Africa  from  Senegal  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     It  is  more  fierce 
than  that  of  India, and  its  tusks  are  much  longer;  the  female  has 
them  as  long  as  the  male.     They  have  not  yet  succeeded  in 
taming  this  species. 

19.  Is  the  Elephant  solitary  in  his  habits  1 

20.  How  does  the  Elephant  sleep  V 

21.  What  weight  can  an  Elephant  carry  ?     To    what  age    do    Elephants 
li-e? 

'23.  How  many  species  of  Elephants  are  known?     What  are  the  charac- 
ters of  the  Indian  Elephant  'f 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Afiican  Elephant?     Has  this  specie* 
heen  tamed  ? 
9* 


10 0 PACHYDERM\TA  ORDINARIA. 

2i.  [In  Siam  there  is  a  variety  of  elephant  which  is  white, 
and  held  in  religious  veneration.] 

25.  The  tusks  of  elephants  furnish  true  ivory;  it  is  known  by 
the  curved  lozenge  formed  lines  its  cut  surface  exhibits  when 
polished.     That  which  is  obtained  from  the  animal  immediately 
after  its  death  is  called  yree.ii  icon/ ;  it  is  more  esteemed  than  the 
other,  which  comes  from  tusks,  found  a  long  time  after  they  have 
been  separated  from  the  animal.     It  is  said  the  first  is  least  liable 
to  become  yellow. 

26.  An  elephant,  found  some  years  ago  in  the  ice  on  the  coast 
of  Siberia,  appears  to  have  been  covered  with  a  coat  of  thick  hair 
and  fur,  which  leads  to  the  supposition  that  this  species,  which 
has  long  since  disappeared  from  the  earth,  lived  in  cold  climates. 

27.  The  Mammoth  and  Mastodon  are  extinct  species  belong- 
ing to  the  family  of  Proboscidians. 


LESSON    IX. 

FAMILY  OP  PACHYDERMATA  ORDINARIA. — Genus  of  Hippopotamus. 

—  Germs  of  Hogs,  (  Wild  Hog,   Domestic  Hog.) — Genus  of 

Rhinoceros. 
FAMILY  OP  SOLIPEDBS. — Horse. —  Habits— Signs  of  the   age  of 

Horses.  —  Principal   Races.  —  rfas.  —  Zebra.  —  Couagga.  — 

Onagga. 

FAMILY  OF  PACHYDERMATA  ORDWARIA. 

I.  This  family  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding,  because  the 
animals  belonging  to  it  have  no  trunk,  or  at  least  no  prehensile 
trunk,  and  from  the  family  which  follows,  because  the  animals 
composing  it  have  several  distinct  toes.  They  are  more  or  less 
omnivorous.  It  is  divided  into  several  genera,  amongst  which 
we  will  mention  the  following  : 

24.  What  kind  of  Elephants  are  found  in  Siam  ? 

25.  What  is  ivor;  ?     What  is  green  ivoiy  ? 

26.  Has  an  Elephant  with  a  h  iry  skin  ever  been  found  ? 

27.  What  are  Mammoths  nnd  Mastadons  ? 

1.  How  is  the  family  of  ordinary  Pachydermata  distinguished  from  other 
Pachydermata  ?  What  are  the  ch  tract  rs  of  the  River  Horse  ?  What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Elog  ?  What  are  the  character*  of  the  Rhinoceros? 
Wh  it  are  the  characters  of  the  Tapirs  ? 


HIPPOPOTAMUS. 

101 

PACHYDERMATA 
ORDINARIA. 
Having  toi  s  in  " 
number 

C     Four  equal  toes. 
1-   Equr.1,  and  the           TwolaP|re     middle  ^ 

!toes,a,rm>dwilh  strong 
appearance  o|  be-^               whijc  the    ^ 

ing  forked             ra,  loes  are  |oo    ghort 

!           Te"               Lt0  re"1  °n  Ule  gfOUnd>  ' 
f     Tliree  toes    on    all 
Unequal,  and      •  the  feel, 
the  f  ><>t  not       ]      Four  foes  before  and 
[          forked.           [  three  behind. 

(Genera.) 
HIPPOPOTAMUS. 

>Hoo. 

RHIiNOCEROS. 

TAPIR. 

2.  The  HIPPOPOTAMUS, — the  River  Horse, — (Plate  5,  fig.  4.) 
Animals  of  this  genus  have  a  massive  body,  short  legs  and  tail, 
inflated  muzzle,  and  the  skin  almost  free  of  hair. 

3.  These  animals,  whose  belly  almost  reaches  the  ground,  so 
short  are  their  extremities,  live  in  the  rivers  of  southern  Africa, 
and  feed  on  vegetable  substances.     They  are   brownish    black, 
and  are  from  ten  to  eleven  feet  long,  and  from  four  to  five  feet  in 
height.     They  seek  their  food  in  the  water  as  well  as  on  land. 
Sometimes  three  or  four  of  them  are  seen  together  in  a  river,  or 
near  a  cataract,  forming  a  sort  of  line  and  rushing  upon  the  fishes 
which  the  rapidity  of  the  current  brings  towards  them.     They 
swim  with  great  vigor,  and  remain  a  longtime  under  water  with- 
out any  necessity  of  breathing  the  air  ;  they  conduct  themselves 
with  so  much  precaution,  rising  so  little  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  seen.     During  the  night,  they 
leave  the  rivers  to  visit  plantations  of  sugar,  millet,  or  rice,  which 
they  devour  with  avidity  :  they  are  so  impetuous  in  their  march, 
that  they  break  down  every  thing  that  comes  in  their    way. 
Their  fierce  character  renders  them  very  formidable. 

4.  HOGS, — ,Sws, — also  have  four  toes  on  all  the  feet,  but  two  of 
them  are  very  large,  directed  forwards,  and  two  which  are  very 
small    and  external,  scarcely  touch  the  ground.     Their  incisors 
vary  in  number,  and  the  canines  protrude  from  the  mouth,  and 
are  all  recurved  like  true  tusks ;  their  muzzle  is  terminated  by  a 
truncated,  fleshy  button,  suitable  for  rooting  the  ground.      Their 
sense  of  smell  is  very  fine,  and  their  tongue  is  soft.     They  live 
in  troops  in  forests,  where  they  feed  on  roots  and  fruits  although, 
they  manifest  no  repugnance  to  animal  food.     To  this  genus  be 
longs: 

2.  How  are  animals  of  the  genus  Hippopotamus  distinguished  ? 

3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  animals  of  this  genus  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  Hogs  ? 

T 


102  HOGS— RHINOCEROS.— TAPIRS. 


5.  The   Wild  Hoy, — Sns  Scropka, — which  is  the  parent  stock 
of  our    Domestic  Hog,  has  a  thick,  short  body,  straight  ears, 
prismatic  tusks  which  curve  outwards,  hair  bristled  and  blackish. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  hog,  and  does  not  vary  in  its  colour,  it  is 
always  a  dark  iron  gray,   with   black  ears,  feet  and  tail.     Its 
muzzle  is  longer  than  that  of  the  hog,  and  its  tusks  which  arise 
from  the  two  jaws  are  much  larger  ;  they  sometimes  grow  to  be 
a  foot  long ;  the  inferior  ones  are  most  formidable  and  inflict 
serious  wounds. 

It  produces  six  or   eight  young  ones  at  a  birth  every  year ; 
which  are  striped  black  and  white. 

6.  The  Domestic  Hog,  varies  in  size,  in  the  length   of  its  ex- 
tremities, in  the  direction  of  its  ears  and  in  colour ;  it  is   white 
or   black,  or  reddish,   or  variegated  :  its  fecundity  is  much  in- 
creased by  domestication,  the  sow   producing  two  litters  every 
year  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pigs  each.     The  hog  continues  to 
grow  for  tive  or  six  years,  and   may  live  twenty.     It  is  very 
voracious,  and  does  not  even  spare  its  own  young.     This  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  animals,  on   account  of  the  quality  of  its 
flesh  and   lard,  and  from  the  facility  of  feeding,  and  multiplying 
it.     There  are  many  varieties. 

7.  The  RHINOCEROS, — (Plate  5.  fa.  3.)  is  a  largo,  dull  animal, 
remarkable  for  the  great  thickness  of  its  skin,  and  the  solid  horn 
it  carries  on  its  nose,  the  bones  of  which    are   very  thick,  and 
united  in  the  form  of  an  arch  to  sustain  it.     This  horn,  which  is  of 
a  fibrous,  horny  nature,  adheres  to  the  skin  and  seems  to  be  com- 
posed of  agglutinated  hairs;  it  has  no  bony  axis    in   its  centre 
like  the  horns  of  the  ruminants. 

8.  Animals  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  warmest  parts  of  the  old 
continent  and  are  generally  found  in  places  where  elephants  are 
met  with.     They  seek  shady  and  humid  situations,  and  wallow, 
like  the  Hippopotamus  and  Hog,  to  supple  their  hide.  Their  intel- 
ligence is  very  limited,  and  their  nature  is  fierce  and  indomitable. 

9.  Several  species  are  known,  some  of  which  belong  to  India, 
and  the  others  to  Africa 

10.  TAPIRS  are  animals  which  very  much  resemble  the  Hog, 
hut  are  distinguished  from  it  at  first  sight  by  the  small  fleshy 

5.  What  is  the  wild  Hog? 

6.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Domestic  Hog  ?     Why  is  this  a  very  use- 
ful animal  ? 

7.  What  is  the  Rhinoceros? 

8.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Rhinoceros? 

9.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  Rhinoceros  found  7 
10.  What  are  Tapirs  / 


FAMILY  OF  SOLTPEDES. 103 

trunk,  formed  by  the  prolongation  of  their  nose,  which  is  suscep- 
tible of  being  elongated  and  shortened,  but  it  is  not  an  organ  of 
prehension  like  that  of  the  elephant. 

1 1.  TheJinifirivau  Tapir, —  Tapir  Jlmericatnin—  which  is  com- 
mon in  humid  places  in  the  warm  countries    of  South  America, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  small  ass.     Its  skin,  which  is  nearly  bare, 
is  brown.     Its  flesh  is  eaten.     A  second  species  inhabits  the  most 
elevated  regions  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  and  has  long, 
black  hair ;  it  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  a  great  many  fabulous 
stories  among  the  Indians.     A  third  species  is  found  in  the  forests 
of  Sumatra  and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  griffin  of  the  ancients, 
which  is  generally  regarded  altogether  as  a  fabulous  animal,  might 
have  been  this  latter,  a  little  disfigured  by  voyagers,  and  to  which 
artists  have  added  wings  and  a  tail  in  architectural  style. 

FAMILY  OF  SOL1PEDES. 

12.  The    Family  of  Stdipedes  comprises  all  quadrupeds  that 
have  but  a  single  toe  apparent,  and  consequently  a  single  hoof. 
This  family  includes  but  one  genus. 

13.  The  genus  HORSE, —  Kt/ims,  —  com  prises  the  Horse  properly 
so  called,  the  Ass,  the  Zebra,  and  several  other  species. 

14.  These  animals  have  six  trenchant  incisors  in  each  jaw, 
which,   in  the  earlier  years  of  life,  have  a  hollow  or   depres- 
sion on  the  crown,  and  on  each  side  of  them   six   molars.     The 
males  have  besides  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  sometimes  in  both,  two 
small  canines  which  are  almost  always  wanting  in  the  female. 
Between  these  canines  and  the  first  molar,  there  is  a  vacant  space, 
(called  bane  in  French,)  in  which  rests  the  bit  by  the  means  of 
which  man  overcomes  and  controls  this  animal.     They  have  a 
projecting  eye  with  a  pupil  in  the  form  of  a  long  square,  the  ear 
is  long  and   moveable,  the   nares   without   muzzle,  the  tongue 
very  soft,  the   sense   of  hearing  acute;  their  upper  lip  is  very 
moveable  and  serves  them  as  an  instrument  of  prehension  ;  the 
whole  body  is  covered  in  a  thick  coat  of  hair,  with  a  mane  on 
the  neck  ;  their  tail  is  of  moderate  size  but  often  adorned    with 
long   hair.     Horses   are   essentially    herbivorous,   though    their 
stomach  is  simple  in  form  and  moderate  in  size.     The  Horse  is 
contented  with  the  commonest  grass  when  accustomed  to  it  from 
an  early  period.     He  is  fond  ot  dry  pasturages;  in  the  stable  he 

11.  What  is  the  American  Tapir  ? 

12.  What  animals  belong  to  the  family  nf  Solipcdes  ? 

13.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  jjenus  Hotse? 

14.  Wh;,t  is  the  di-i;tal  system  of  the  Horse?     What  are  the  characters  of 
the  Horse?     Upon  what  does  he  feed  / 


104  IIOKSES. 


feeds  on  hay,  luzerne,  trefoil,  vetches,  oats ;  wheat,  barley,  and 
oat  straw,  also  agree  with  him  when  he  gets  at  the  same  time 
a  portion  of  good  hay  and  grain. 

J5.  The  Horse  proprrly  an  rutlril  is  distinguished  from  other 
species  of  this  genus  by  the  uniform  colour  of  his  robe,  and  by 
his  tail  being  ornamented  with  long  hair  from  its  origin.  He  ex- 
ceeds them  also  in  height  as  well  as  in  the  beauty  of  his  form. 

16.  The  Horse,  the  noble  companion  of  man   in  war  and  the 
labours  of  the  field,  the  arts  and  commerce,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, and  most  carefully  attended  of  all  the  animals  which  we 
have  brought  under  our  control.     It  is  originally  from   the  great 
plains  of  central  Asia,   but  is  now  spread  in    great    numbers 
throughout  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  no  longer  exists  in 
the  wild  state,  except  in  places  where  horses,  previously  domesti- 
cated, have  been  left  at  liberty,  as  in  Tartary  and  America ;  the 
importation  of  these  animals  into  the  latter  country  dates  only 
about  three  hundred  years  back,  and,  nevertheless,    wild  horses 
exist  there  in  immense  numbers.     It  is  asserted  that  troops  con- 
sisting of  more  than  ten  thousand  individuals  are   occasionally 
met  with. 

17.  The  Horse  may  live  about  thirty  years;  but  when  old,  he 
loses  nearly  all  his  estimable  qualities ;  before  he  attains  four  or 
five  years,  he  cannot  be  mounted  or  employed  in  draught:  for 
this  reason,  it  will  be  perceived,  it  is  very  important  to  be  able 
to  ascertain  the  age  of  horses;  up  to  the    age  of  about  eight 
years  it  may  be  known  with  certainty,  by  the  successive  changes 
which  occur  in  the  dental  system,  but  beyond  this  period,  there  is 
no  positive  sign  of  their  age,  and  they  say,  they  ///«/-A   no  longer, 
because  at  that  time,  the  hollows  on  the  surface  of  their  incisors 
have  been  effaced. 

18.  Morses  vary  very  much  from  each  other  in  size,  the  beauty 
of  their  form,  and  in  their  speed,  and  several  different  races  are 
distinguished  amongst  them.    The  most  celebrated  is  the  etf/W;  «  , 
which  is  small  in  size  but  admirable  in  form,  and  extremely  swift. 
The  English  horses  owe  their  good  qualities  in  a  great  measure 
to  their  mixture  with  the  Arabian.     In  France,  there  are  several 
races  which  are  more  or  Jess  prized;  the  horses  of  Limousin  are 
most  esteemed  for  the  saddle;  the  Norman  race  is  equally  prized, 

15.  How  is  I  he  Hoisc  properly  to  called,  distinguished  from  other  species 
(\f  this  genus  ? 

16.  Where  is  the  Horse  originally  from  ?     Does  the  Horse  exist  in  a  wild 
state  ? 

17.  To  what  age  do  Horses  live?     By  what  means  may  we  ascertain   Ino 
age  of  Horses  ? 

18.  What  races  of  Horses  are  most  esteemed  ? 


ASS  —ZEBRA.—  COUAGGA.-UNAGGA. 105 

but  is  not  so  fine ;  the  race  of  Bretayite  is  principally  employed 
in  posting,  and  the  race  of  Boulogne,  for  draught  and  similar 
service. 

19  The  .#>•>•, — E(iw»&  Mum,—  is  known  by  his  size,  which  is 
generally  smaller  than  that  of  the  horse ;  by  his  long  ears ;  by  the 
black  cross  over  his  shoulders,  and  by  the  tuft  of  hair  which  termi- 
nates the  tail.  Though  not  so  powerful  as  the  horse,  but  being 
more  patient  and  quiet,  he  is  not  less  valuable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  Comparatively,  he  is  stronger  and  hardier  than 
his  happy  rival.  Subject  to  fewer  diseases,  his  life  is  sustained  at 
little  cost.  He  is  only  particular  in  his  drink,  and  requires  pure, 
limpid  water.  He  is  three  or  four  years  before  he  attains  his  full 
growth,  and  lives  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years ;  he  sleeps 
1<  ss  than  the  horse. 

20.  When  young,  the  Ass  is  animated  and  sprightly  ;  but  bad 
treatment  soon  destroys  his  vivacity  :  he   becomes  slow,  stupid, 
and  headstrong 

21.  The  milk  of  the  Ass,  which  very  closely  resembles  that  of 
woman,  is  considered  to  be  a  wholesome  diet,  and  even  a  remedy 
in  some  diseases,  such  as  phthisis. 

22.  The  Zt-bra, — Eqiius  '/.<h>«,-  which  is  very  like  the  Ass  in 
form  and  proportions,  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  most  intrac- 
tible  of  animals.     His  skin  has  the  softness  of  satin,  and  is  adorned 
with  beautiful  ribbon-like  stripes.     In  the  female  these  stripes  are 
alternately  black  and  white ;  and  in  the  male,  brown  and  yellow. 
The  body  is  round  and  full ;  the  limbs  are  remarkably  slender. 
His  voice  resembles  the  sound  of  a  hunter's  horn.     The  Zebra  is 
found    principally  in   the  southern  parts   of  Africa  ;   numerous 
troops  are  often  seen  grazing  on  the  extensive  plains  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

23.  [The  C>nagQn,—Ejtn^  Qnucchn, — wh'ih   resembles    the 
Horse  more  than  the  Zebra,  is  striped  only  on  the  shoulders  and 
back.     His  name  is  derived  from   his  cry,  wMch  resembles  the 
barking  of  a  dog.     The  colonists  of  the  viciriitv  of  the  Cape  of 
C.'ood  Hope,  have  accustomed  it  to  harness,  and  keep  it  with  their 
herds,  which,  they  say,  it  protects  from  hyenas  and  other  ferocious 
animals  of  the  same  size. 

24.  The    ()naf/f/tt,—E}ints     17ontanHg, — or    mountain    horse, 
which   has  not    been  very  long  known  to  naturalists,  is  smaller 

19.  What  is  the  Ass  ?     What  are  his  cij'imcters  ? 

20.  What  effect  has  had  tieutmet.t  on  t,.e  Ass? 

21.  What  are  ihe  peculiarities  nf  Ass's  milk  ? 

22.  What  is  the  Zebra  ?     Where  i    the  Zebra  found  ? 

23.  Whut  js  the  Couigga?    For  what  purpose  is  it  use*.  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Onagga  ? 

T2 


106 ORDER  OF  RUMINANTTA. 

than  the  Ass,  and  is  marked  on  the  head,  neck  and  trunk  by  alter- 
nately wide  and  narrow  black  stripes  upon  an  Isabella  or  bay 
ground.  His  legs  and  tail  are  white.] 


LESSON    X. 

ORDER  OF  RUMINANTIA — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities 
of  their  organization — humiliation. 

RUMINANTS  WITHOUT  HORNS. — Genus  of  Camels. — Camels  proper- 
ly so  callea. — Peculiarities  of  organization. — Habits  and  uses. 
— Camel  with  one  hump,  Cairn  I  with  two  humps. — llamas, 
(Guanaco,Vicnnia) — Genus  of  Mwks. 

RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS  —  Genus  of  Stags.  —  Deer.  —  Habits, 
(Fallow  Deer,  Common  ''Stag,  liocbuck,  Kein-Deer,  Elk.) — 
Genus  of  Giraffes.— Genus  of  Jlntelofses,  (Gazelle,  Chamois.) 
—  Genus  of  Goats,  (  Wild  Goat,  Bouquetin  or  Ibex,  Domestic 
Goat.) 


ORDER     OF     RUMINANTIA. 


1.  All  the  animals  belonging  to  this  order,  seem  to  have  been 
constructed  on  the  same  model.     Their  name  is  derived  from  the 
circumstance  of  chewing  the  cud. 

2.  They  all  have  incisors  only  in  the  lower  jaw,  always  eight 
in  number. 

3.  They  have  on  each  foot  two  toes  enveloped  in  two  hoofs, 
which  apply  one  to  the  other,  by  their  internal  sides,  so  that  their 
feet  have  the  appearance  of  being  cleft  or  cloven. 

4.  The  two  bones  of  the  metacarpus,  and  of  the  metatarsus, 
are  joined  in  a  single  one,  which  is  called  the  canon  bone. 

5.  They  are  all  herbivorous  and  have  four  stomachs.  ( Plate  6. 
fig.  4   and  5.)  The  first  and  largest  is  called  the  paunch  (rumen,) 
the   second    is  named  honey-comb,  or  bonnet,  (reticulum,)  the 
tnird  the  leaflet,  the  Many  plies,  or  the  Omasum,  (psalterium,)  and 
the  fourth  the  Caillette  (abomamsj  or  rennet-bag. 

1.  From    what   circumstance   do  animals  of  the  order  of  Ruminantia 
derive  the  name? 

2.  What  is  remarked  of  their  incisor  teeth  1 

3.  How  many  toes  have  Ruminants? 

4.  What  is  the  Canon  bone  ? 

5.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  Ruminantia* 


RUMINATION.  107 


6.  When  these  animals  feed  they  swallow  their  aliments  at 
first  without  having  chewed  them      These  substances  then  enter 
into  the  paunch  and  there  accumulate ;  thence  they  pass  into  the 
second  stomach  (reticulum  ;)  but  after  having  remained  there  for 
a  certain  time  they  are  carried  back  again  into  the  mouth   to   be 
chewed,  and  afterwards  swallowed  again ;  and  when  they  descend 
again  into  the  stomach,  they  no  more  enter  the  paunch  or  reticu- 
lum, but  go  directly  to  the  manijpiics  (third  stomach)  from  which 
they  pass  into  the  fourth  stomach  or  rfeJtArf-fcjgf,  where  they  are 
digested. 

7.  At  first,  one  is  astonished  to  see  food  p:iss  at  one  time  into 
the  paunch  and  reticulum,  at  another  into  the  mam/plus,  (third 
stomach,;  according  as  it  has  been  swallowed  for  the  first  timr, 
or  after  it  has  been  regurgitated,  and  one  is  tempted  to  attribute 
this  phenomenon  to  a  sort  of  tact  with   which  the  openings  of 
these  different  digestive  pouches  seem  to  be  endowed.     But  there 
is  nothing  of  the  kind,  this  result  being  the  necessary  consequence 
of  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  parts.     The  oesophagus 
terminates  below  in  a  species  of  gutter  or  longitudinal  slit,  which 
occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  reticulum,  (second  stomach)  and 
the  paunch,  and  is  continued  to  the  in-iHyplies.     Ordinarily,  the 
edges  of  the  slit,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  lie  close  together, 
and  then  this  gutter  constitutes  a  perfect  tube  which  leads  from 
the  oesophagus  into    the  //<«/it//>//< «  (third  stomach;)  but   if  the 
alimentary  ball  swallowed  by  the  animal  is  solid,  and  somewhat 
large,  it  distends  this  tube,  and  separates  the  edges  of  the  open- 
ing through  which  the  (Esophagus  communicates    with    the   two 
first   stomachs :    the  food   falls  into  these  pouches ;  but   if  the 
alimentary  ball  be  soft  and  pulpy,  as  is  the  case  when  mastica- 
tion has  been  completed,  the  matter  swallowed,  enters  into  this 
same  tube  without  separating  the  edges  of  the  slit,  and  reaches  the 
third  stomach. 

8.  It  is  by  this  mechanism  that  unchewed  food  which  che  ani- 
mal swallows  for  the  first  time,  stops  in  the  paunch  and  reticulum  ; 
while,  after  it   has  been  chewed  a  second  time  and  well  mixed 
with  saliva,  it  penetrates  directly  into  the  manyplies. 

6.  What   becomes   of  the   food    wh  n  Jirst   swal  owed  bv    Ruminants? 
After  it  has  bet-n   f  r  a  time  in  the  second  stomach,  what  becomes  of  it? 
What  becomes  of  the  food  after  it  has  been  sw-llowed  a  second  time? 

7.  What  is  the  reason  why  food  swallowed  thcjirst  time  does  not  enter 
the  third  and  fourth  stomach  ?     Why  does  no   the  food  enter  the  first  and 
s  cond  stomach  after  it   has  been  ch(  wed  and  swallowed  a  second  time? 
What  is  the  anato.j.ical  arrangement  of  the  sto.nachs  a:,d  (Esophagus  of  the 
fciMiin.i   tia  ' 

•S,  Wh*it  is  the  effect  of  this  arrangement? 
10 


108     DTVTSnN  OF  THE  ORDE7  OF  RU.AIIN  \NTS. 

9.  The  mechanism  by  which  aliment  accumulated  in  the  first 
stomach  is  carried  back  to  the  mouth  is  also  very  simple.    When 
regurgitation   begins,   the  reticulum  contracts   and  presses  the 
alimentary  mass  against  the  slit-like  opening  which  terminates 
the  oesophagus ;  then  this  opening  enlarges  so  as  to  seize  a  pinch 
or  portion  of  the  alimentary  mass,  compresses  it  and  forms  it 
into  a  small  pellet  which  engages  in  the  oesophagus,  the  fibres  of 
which  contract  successively  from   below  upwards,  to  push  for- 
ward the  new  alimentary  ball  into  the  mouth. 

10.  /{uminants  are  large  animals  without  much  intelligence, 
but  which,  nevertheless,  render  immense  service  to  man  :  they 
furnish    him   with  nearly  all  the  meat  that  he  eats ;  their  milk 
furnishes  us  excellent  food ;  their  fat,  which  is  harder  than  that 
of  other  quadrupeds,  and  named  tallow  is  applied  to  many  pur- 
poses in  the  arts  and  domestic  economy ;  their  skin,  prepared  by 
tanning,  constitutes  nearly  all  the  leather  we  use ;  finally,  their 
horns,  their  bones,  their  blood,  and  even  their  intestines  which 
are  manufactured  into  cords,  are  useful  to  us  ;  when  living,  many 
of  these  animals,  employed  as  beasts   of  burthen,  are  equally 
valuable  both  in  commerce  and  agriculture. 

11.  This  order  may  be  divided  into  two  sections:  the  first 
comprises  Ruminants  without  horns,  and  the  second,  Ruminants 
with  horns,  either  in  both  sexes,  or  in  the  male  only. 

Ruminants  without  Horns. 

12.  Ruminants,  which  are  entirely  without  horns,  also  differ 
from  other  Ruminants  in  their  teeth,  and  somewhat  resemble  the 
Pachydermata.     They  are  divided  into  two  small  tribes  which 
may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters : 

(Tribes.) 

RUMINANTS  WITHOUT  HORNS.    ^  Six  incisor  te<  th     ....     CAMEL. 
The  lower  j;iw  provided  wilh  )  Eight  incisor  teeth      -     -    -     MUSK. 

13.  Tlie  Tribe  of  Camels  is  composed  of  Camels  propely  so 
called,  and  Lamas.     These  animals  differ  from  all  other  Rumin- 
ants in  the  number  of  their  incisors,  which  is  eight  in  all  the  rest 

,  of  this  order,  and  in  their  molars,  of  which  we  count  from  twenty 

9.  By  what  process  is  foo  J  carried  back  from  the  second  st  imaeh  to  the 
«nnuth  7 

10.  What  are  Ruminants?     In  what  particulars  are  they  useful  to  man  ? 

11.  How  is  the  order  of  Ruminantia  divided? 

12-  Into  what  tribes  are  Ruminants  without  horns  divided  ?  How  many 
incisor  teeth  have  Camels?  How  many  incisor  teeth  hnve  Musks? 

13.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  tnhe  of  Camels?  How  many  molar 
teeth  have  they  ?  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Camels  ? 


CAMELS.— LAMAS. 


to  twenty-two  instead  of  twenty-four.  The  conformation  of  their 
extremities  is  equally  characteristic,  for  their  feet  are  not  cloven, 
and  they  have  very  small  hoofs  ;  the  neck  is  very  long,  their  limbs 
badly  proportioned,  and  their  upper  lip  inflated  and  cleft.  Their 
gentleness  is  remarkable. 

14.  CAMELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, —  Camelus,-  are  distinguished 
by  the  enormous  humps  of  fat   they  have  on  the  back;  which 
makes  them  appear  hump-backed,  and  by  the  structure  of  their 
feet  which   are  admirably  adapted  for  travelling  on  the  sand,  so 
common  in  the  regions  inhabited  by  these  animals  :  in  fact,  their 
two  toes  are  joined  underneath  nearly  to  their  ends  by  a  thick, 
flexible  sole. 

15.  These  animals  belong  to  the  warm  parts  of  the  old  conti- 
nent.    They  are  celebrated    for  their   docility,  for  the  faculty 
which  they  possess  of  sustaining  long  journeys,  though  heavily 
laden,  and  particularly  for  their  great  gentleness      Camels,  with- 
out which,  perhaps  man  never  could  have  traversed  the  vast, 
sandy   deserts   which    are  found   in   Asia  and  Africa,  have  the 
faculty  of  passing  several  days  without  drinking,  which  is  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  presence  of  a  number  of  cells  in  the  parietes  of 
the  paunch,  where  the  water  is  retained  or  continually  produced  ; 
on  this  account  they  have  been  called  ships  of  the  desert. 

16.  The  two  principal  species  of  the  genus  of  camels  are;  the 
Bactriau  Camel,  or  Camel  with  two  humps,  and  Arabian  Camel, 
or  Camel  with  one  hump5   which  is  called  the  Dromedary, — 
(Jatiu'lus  Dioinedarms. 

"  The  variety  to  which  the  name  of  Dromedary  properly  belongs, 
with  the  weight  of  a  man,  only,  can  perform  very  lengthened 
journeys,  and  at  a  very  rapid  quick  pace.  Several  of  these  attend 
the  caravans  when  crossing  any  of  the  African  deserts,  perform- 
ing the  offices  of  scouts  and  keeping  a  look  out  both  for  danger 
from  the  wandering  tribes,  and  for  the  approach  to  the  water 
stations.  These  will  travel  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  in  the  twenty  four  hours. 

"It  is  related  by  a  modern  traveller,' That  one  of  these  animals 
will  in  one  night,  and  through  a  level  country,  traverse  as  much 
ground  as  any  simple  horse  can  perform  in  ten.  It  was  often 
affirmed  to  him  by  the  Arabs  and  Moors,  that  it  makes  nothing  of 
holding  its  rapid  pace,  which  is  a  most  violent  hard  trot,  for  four 
and  twenty  hours  upon  a  stretch,  without  showing  the  least  sign 

14.  How  arc  Camels  properly  so  called  recognised? 

15.  What  is  th  >  general  character  of  the  Tarn- 1  ?     What  peculiar  faculty 
is  (>o-^es<ed  by  the  Camel?     How  do  you  account  for  the  Camel  being  able 
lo  pass  several  days  without  drinking  ? 

16.  What  are  the  principal  species  of  the  genus  Camel  ? 


lift  GUANACO.— VICUNIA.--  MUSK. 


of  weariness,  or  inclination  to  bait,  and  that  having  then  swallowed 
a  ball  or  two  of  a  sort  of  paste,  made  up  of  barley,  and  perhaps 
a  litile  powder  of  dates  among  it,  with  a  bowl  of  water  or  camel's 
milk,  if  to  be  had,  and  which  the  courier  seldom  fails  to  be  pro- 
vided with  in  skins,  as  well  as  for  the  sustenance  of  himself  as  of 
his  pegasus,  the  indefatigable  animal  will  seem  as  fresh  as  at  first 
setting  out,  and  ready  to  continue  running  at  the  same  scarce 
credible  rate  for  as  many  hours  longer,  and  so  on  from  one  ex- 
tremity of  the  African  desert  to  the  other.'" 

17.  The  Bactrian  Camel,  —  Caimlns  Baclrianvs,  —  is  about 
seven  feet  high  to  the  shouders :  he  is  much  more  powerful  than 
the  Dromedary  in  proportion  to  his  size. 

]  8.  The  LAMAS, — J%uch  nia, — are  the  camels  of  the  new  world, 
but,  if  they  are  less  ugly  than  those  of  Asia,  they  possess  neither 
their  size  nor  strength.  Their  proportions  are  lighter :  they  have 
no  humps,  and  their  toes  not  being  joined,  they  retain  their 
mobility  which  enables  them  to  climb  rocks  and  mountains  with 
the  agility  of  Goats.  Two  species  are  known:  the  Guanaco 
and  Vicviiia. 

19.  [The  Guan-aco, —  Camelvs  Llaina, — (Plate  5,  fig.  5.) — is 
met  with  in  the  high  mountains  of  South  America ;  it  is  the  size 
of  a  stag,  and  its  coat  is  thick,  and  of  a  chestnut  colour.     A 
variety  of  this  species,  very  long  since  domesticated,  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Lama,  or  Llama.     At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards,  it  was  the  only  beast  of  burthen 
of  that  country,  and  in  our  day,  it  is  still  employed  for  the  same 
purpose  ;  it  carries  a  load  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, 
but  makes  very  short  journeys.     Another  variety  of  the  domestic 
Guanaco  is  the  Jllpaca,  or  Paco,  the  fleece  of  which  is  composed 
of  long,  woolly  hair,  which,  in  fineness  and  elasticity,  is  not  much 
inferior  to  the  most  beautiful  woo!  of  the  goats  of  Thibet. 

20.  The  Vicunia,  (Viounia,) — Cameln*    Vicuuna, — which   is 
rather  larger  than  a  sheep,  is  also  remarkable  for  its  beautifully 
soft,  yellowish,  brown  wool.     It  inhabits  along  the  line   of  per- 
petual snow  of  the  Andes  of  Chile  and  Peru  ;  it  is  actively  hunted 
on  account  of  its  wool  which  is  manufactured  into  valuable  stuffs, 
and  hats.] 

21.  The  Tribe  of  Miisks, — Mcschtis, — includes  only  one  genus. 
These  are  charming  animals  from  their  elegance  and  lightness; 

17.  What  is  the  Bactrian  Camel  ? 

18.  What  are  Lamas?     What  a  e  their  habits?     How  many  species  of 
Lamas  ure  known  ? 

19.  What  is  the  Guanaco?  Where  is  it  found  ?     Is  it  applied  to  any  use  7 
What  is  the  Alpaca  or  Puco? 

20.  For  what  is  tl  e  Vicunia  ren  arkable? 

21.  What  are  Musks?     What  genera  belong  to  this  tribe  t 


RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS.  Ill 


..all  belong  to  central  or  southern  Asia ;  they  have  no  incisors  in 
the  upper  jaw,  nor  canines  in  the  lower,  but  are  distinguished  by 
a  long  canine  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  which,  in  the  male, 
descends  upon  the  lower  lip  an«l  protrudes  from  the  mouth.  Tc 
this  genus  belongs  the  species  named,  the  .)/»«//, —  .1  lose/ins  Mos- 
chifrrus, — which  is  found  in  Thibet;  it  is  the  size  of  a  goat:  it 
furnishes  musk,  which  substance  is  found  with  the  male  in  a 
pouch  beneath  th2  belly. 

Ruminants  with  Horns. 

22  All  the  animals  comprised  in  this  section,  of  the  male  sex 
at  least,  have  two  horns  the  centre  of  which  is  formed   by  pro- 
jections of  greater  or  less  length  of  the  frontal  bone.     Three  kinds 
of  horns  are  distinguished  in  Ruminants 

23  Sometimes,  as  in  the  Giraffe,  they  are  enveloped  in  a  hairy 
skin,  which  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  head,  and  do  not  perish 
or  shed. 

24.  At  other  times,  as  is  seen  in  the  genus  of  STAGS,  the  above 
mentioned  projections  or  processes,  covered  for  a  time  by  hairy 
skin  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  head,  have  at  their  base  a  ring  of 
bony  tubercles  which,  by  enlarging,  compress  and  obliterate  the 
nutritious  vessels  of  this  skin.     It  dries,  and  is  removed :  the  bony 
prominence,  thus  laid  bare  ,  separates  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time 
from  the  cranium,  and  falls,  leaving  the   animal  without  horns: 
but  he  replaces  them  with  new  ones,  which  become  still  more 
developed  than  those  they  have  replaced,  and  in  their  turn  they 
also  fall,  from   the  influence  of  the  same  causes.     Those  bony 
horns  which  are  liable  to  periodical  changes,  bear  the  name  of 
deciduous  horns,  (antlers.) 

25.  Again,  the  bony  part  of  the  horns  is  covered  in  a  case  of 
elastic  substance  which  grows  by  layers  through  the  whole  period 
of  life;  the  horns  of  the  ox  are  of  this  kind;  they  never  fall. 
Those  Ruminants  which  have  similar  prominences  or  projections 
are  named,  Ruminants  wttli  hallow  horns. 

26.  In  the  family  of  Ruminants  with  horns,   the  incisor  teeth 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  always  eight  in  number,  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  molars  is  twenty-four  :  the  feet  are  cleft  or  cloven. 

22.   How  are  Ruminant?  with  horns  distinguished  ?     How  many  kinds  of 
horns  are  possessid  by  Ruminants? 

23    Wh  >t  kinds  of 'horns  have  Giraffes  ? 

24.  By  what  process  do  Stags  shed  their  horns?     What  are  those  herns 
culled  which  arc  shed   periodically  ? 

25.  Wlnt  kind  of  horns  have  Oxen  ? 

26.  Whit  is  the  number  of  incisor  teeth  in  Ruminants  with  horns  ?  What 
is  the  number  of  their  molars  ? 

10* 


112 DIVISION  OF  RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS. 

27.  Ruminants  with  horns  are  divided  into  genera  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  


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27.  How  are  Ruminants  with  horns  divided  into  genera  ?  (See  table  )  What 
kind  of  horns  has  the  Stag?  What  genera  have  permanent  horns  ?  What 
genus  has  the  horns  covered  with  hairy  skin  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the 
horns  of  the  Antelope  ?  What  kind  of  horns  has  the  Go;,t?  What  kind  of 
horns  have  Sheep  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  horns  of  the  Ox  » 


STAG.— FALLOW  DEER. H3 

28.  The  genus  STAG, — C  rvus, — includes  all  Ruminants  that, 
in  the  male  sex,  have  deciduous  horns  on  the  head ;  these  horns 
are  always  wanting  in  the  female,  with   the  single  exception  of 
the  species  named  Rein-deer.     All  these  animals  inhabit  forests, 
and  are  fleet  in  the  chase ;  their  limbs  are  long  and  slender,  the 
body  light  and  round,  the  coat  clean  and  shining :  in  general 
they  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  their  forms ; 
ordinarily,  they  shed  their  horns  in  the  spring. 

29.  A  great  number  of  different  species  are  known,  among 
which  we  will  mention,  the  common  Stag,  the  Fallow  Deer,  the 
Roebuck,  the  Rein-Deer,  and  the  Elk. 

SO.  The  Stag,  properly  so  called,  the  common  Stag, —  Cervtit 
Elrphiis, — (Plate.  5.  fiy.  7.) — is  found  in  forests.  The  female  is 
named  a  Hind  or  Doc,  and  the  young  is  called  a  Fawn.  The 
male  only  has  horns.  At  about  six  months  old  there  is  perceived 
on  the  head  two  tubercles ;  at  this  time  the  animal  is  called  a 
Kn'bhcr;  at  one  year  old  these  tubercles  are  lengthened,  and 
though  simple,  they  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  long.  At  this 
period  the  animal  loses  the  skin  that  covers  them, the  horns  remain 
naked  for  sometime  before  they  fall,  and  the  Knobber  takes  the 
name  of  Pricket,  Broctt,  or  Stayyard.  When  the  Fawn  reaches 
his  third  year,  he  loses  the  spikes  or  spears,  and  the  horns  which 
replace  them  ordinarily  have  three  brances  and  are  called  rfnflers. 
During  each  succeeding  year  to  the  seventh,  the  horns,  on  being 
reproduced,  have  an  additional  antler,  so  that  the  horns  of  old 
Stags  are  generally  composed  of  seven  branches  which  spring 
from  a  common  stalk. 

31.  This  animal  is  very  delicate  in  his  choice  of  food,  which 
usually  consists  of  herbs  or  young  buds  and  roots  of  different 
trees.  When  his  hunger  is  satisfied,  he  retires  to  the  shade  of 
some  dense  foliage  and  ruminates,  but  with  more  difficulty  than 
the  cow  or  sheep  ;  he  makes  a  hiccough-sort  of  noise  the  whole 
time :  his  hearing  and  sense  of  smell  are  very  fine. 

32  The  Fallow  Deer, — Cervus  Dama,—  is  not  so  large  as  the 
Stag ;  he  has  a  longer  tail,  black  above  and  white  below.  His 

28.  W I  at  animals  belong  to  the  genus  Stag?     Have    all    the  femules   ot 
this  genus  hoi  n-  ?    What  are  th  >  general  ch  .meters  of  animals  of  this  genus  7 

29.  Is  ihere  more  than  on-i  species  of  ihe  genus  St.ig? 

30.  Wht  re  is  the  Sftag  properly  so  called  found  ?     What  is  the  female  Stag 
Cillod  ?     What  is  a  Fawn  ?      What  is  the  young  Stag  called  when  its  horns 
are  hist  per.  eiv  d  ?     What  is  the  animal  when  it  is  a  year  oH  /     When  do 
fie  Anilci  s  appeur  ?     What  i.s  the  gi\  atest  number  of  Antlers  possessed  by  a 
Stag? 

31  Off  what  does  the  Stag  feed? 

32  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Fallow-  Deer  ?  Is  this  Deer  found  wild  ? 

U 


il4  ROEBUCK.— REIN-DEER.— ELK 


horns,  in  place  of  being  branched  and  round,  are  flattened  and 
piilmate.  The  two  species  dislike  each  other  and  never  dwell  or 
pasture  in  the  same  places.  Fallow-deers  ordinarily  live  twenty 
years,  and  attain  their  full  growth  at  the  end  of  three.  They  are 
rarely  found  wild  ;  they  are  reared  in  parks,  and  are  kept  for  the 
amusement  and  luxury  of  the  great. 

33.  They   browse  more  closely  than  the  Stag,  and  feed  on 
many  vegetables   that   Stags  refuse  to  eat;  they  are  very  in- 
jurious to  young  trees,  which  they  despoil  of  their  bark 

34.  The  Roebuck, — Cervus  Caftreo'its,  —  is  of  a  more  or  less 
deep  yellowish   gray,  white  buttock  and   almost  without    tail. 
He  lives  in  the  tall  forests  of  temperate  Europe.     His  horns  are 
six  or  eight  inches  long ;  they  are  strong,  straight  and  divided  at 
the  extremity  into  three  branches.     The  length  of  the   Roebuck 
rarely  exceeds  three  feet  and  his  height  two  and  a  half.     He  is 
very  animated,  and  his  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute.     The  dura- 
tion of  his  life  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years. 

35.  Roebucks  differ  from  all  other  deer  in  their  habits.     They 
do  not  live  in  troops,  but  in  families.     The  female  manifests  the 
highest  degree  of  maternal  solicitude  and  affection ;  she  brings 
forth  two  fawns  at  a  birth,  ordinarily  a  male  and  a  female. 

36.  The  Keiu-IJeei; — Cervus  T<randiis, — is  of  the  size  of  the 
stag,  but  has  shorter  legs.     The  female,  like  the  male,  has  horns 
which  at  a  certain  age  are  branched,  in  the  form  of  enlarged  den- 
ticulate palms.    (Plate  5.   fig.  8)     The  people  of  the  northern 
nations  employ  them  in  drawing  sledges  and  carrying  burthens, 
and  eat  their  flesh  and   milk      Their  activity  is  such  that  two 
Ilein-Deers  harnessed  to  a  sledge  will  travel  from  forty  to  fifty 
leagues  in  a  single  day 

37.  The  Elk, — Cervvs  dices,— (Moose  Deer,)  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  animals  of  this  genus ;  his  stature  sometimes  exceeds  that 
of  a  horse.     His  horns  which  stand  out  from  the  sides  of  the  head, 
form  two  flattened  plates,  deeply  denticulated  on  the  anterior 
edge;  their  weight  sometimes  reaches  fifty  pounds;  and  to  sup- 
port them  nature  has  given  this  animal  a  shorter  and  stouter  neck 
than  any  other  deer :  he  is  nevertheless,  taller  than  most  of  them, 
which  forces  him,  when  grazing  on  the  ground,  either  to  kneel  or 
spread  his  feet ;  but  he  feeds  principally  on  leaves  and  high  grass. 
He  delights  in  low  forests  and  swamps,  and  inhabits  the  north  of 

33.  Upon  what  does  the  Fallow- D<  er  feed  ? 

34.  What  Are  the  characters  of  the  Roebuck? 

35.  Wh;.t  are  the  habits  of  Roebucks  ? 

36.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Rein-deer  ?     To  what  purpose*  is  this 
animal  applied  '/ 

37.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Elk  ?    What  are  his  habits  ? 


G  TRAFFE.— ANTELOPES  —GAZELLE.— CHAMOIS.         115 

Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  He  is  a  heavy  animal,  and  is  far  from 
possessing  the  grace  and  beauty  that  generally  belong  to  the 
Deers. 

38.  The  genus  GIRAFFE, —  Canieh'opardalis, — is  distinguished 
from  all  others  by  the  horns,   which  are  conical,  and   always 
covered  with  hairy  skin  ;  they  are  never  shed,  and  exist  in  both 
sexes.  (Piatc  5.  /?</.  6.)  Only  one  species  is  known      The  Giraffe, 
whose  height   when  full  grown,  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the 
fore  feet,  is  about  seventeen  feet,  has  the  skin  beautifully  spotted 
brown  on  a  white  ground.     His  walk  is  neither  clumsy  nor  disa- 
greeable, but  there  is  something  in  his  trot  that  is  ridiculous;  his 
favourite  food  is    the  leaf  of  acacia  and  ash  trees      When  he 
browses  on  the  ground,  the  length  of  his  legs  forces  him  to  spread 
them  in  order  to  reach  his  pasture.     The  Giraffe  inhabits  Africa. 
The  one,  whose  head  is  copied  in  the  plate,  was  taken  at  Sanaar. 

39.  The  genus  of  ANTELOPES  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  group 
of  Ruminants  with  hollow  horns,  or  horns  with  sheaths;  these 
animals  for  the  most  part  resemble  stags  in  their  light  forms  and 
swiftness.     Amongst  the  numerous  species   which  are   spread 
through  both  continents,  we  will  mention : 

40.  The    G'atrY/r, — tfmtvbtpe    Dorcas, — is   of  the   size   of  the 
Roebuck,  and   possesses  an  elegant  form ;  the  horns  are  black, 
round,  and   thick ;  the  eye   beautiful,  and  its  look  very  soft,     it 
lives  in  very  numerous  troops  and  inhabits  the  north  of  Africa. 

41.  The  C.iuindis, — Jiettelttfe  li'tipicapru, — (Plate  5,  fig.  9.) — • 
is  of  the  size  of  a  large  goat,  but  has  snorter  legs  and  a  stouter 
body  than  common  antelopes,  a  deep  brown  coat  with  a  black 
stripe  descending  from  the  eye  along  the  muzzle.     These  animals 
are  never  contented  except  among  the  rocks,  on  precipices,  where 
they  can  be  sheltered  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.     Their  agility  is 
surprising;  they  venture  upon  almost  perpendicular  rocks  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  without  any  means  of  insuring 
their  footing :  they  fly  rather  than  run. 

42.  Animals  of  the  genus  of  GOATS, — Copra, — have  the  horns 
directed  upwards  and  backwards,  the  chin  is  generally  furnished 
with  a  long  beard  and  the  chanfrin  is  concave.     All  the  species 
of  this  genus  belong  to  Europe  or  Asia,  and  live  in  small  families 
on  steep  mountains,  where  they  display  astonishing  agility. 

38.  How  is  the  genus  Giraffe  disiinguislied  fro  n  other  Ruminants?    What 
are  the  characters  of  the  Giraffe?     Where  is  this  aniuial  found  ? 

39.  Wh.tare  Ant  1  pes? 

40.  Whut  is  the  Gazelle? 

41.  Wh.tare  t  .e  characters  of  the  Chamois  ? 

42.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Goats7 


IIG  GOATS. 


43.  The  JSyagre  or  Wild  Goat,— Copra  jEgagrm,—(riaU 
5.  fiy.  10.)  seems  to  be  the  original  stock  of  all  the   varieties  of 
our  domestic  goats;  it  is  distinguished   by  having  horns   which 
are  trenchant  in  front  and  very  large  in  the  male,  while  they  are 
short  and  sometimes  entirely  wanting  in  the  female.      It  lives  in 
troops  on  the  mountains  of  Persia,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  Alps. 
The  Oriental  Bezoar  is  a  concretion  which  is  found  in   its  intes- 
tines. 

44.  The  Botioueiin,  or  they,  —  Capra  /W, — is  another  species 
of  wild  goat ;  the  male  has  large  horns  which  are  square  in  front, 
and  marked  by  transverse  and  projecting  knots ;  they  are  short 
or  wanting  in  the  female ;  his  colour  is  yellow  above,  white  be- 
low, and  he  has  a  black  stripe  upon  the  back.     He  inhabits  the 
summits  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  old  world. 

45.  The    Domestic   Gnnt, —  Capra   Hinws, — which   seems  to 
have  descended  from  the  Wild  Goat,  or  from  a  mixture  of  that 
species  and  the  Ibex,  is  found  throughout  Europe,  and  indeed,  is 
met  with  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  earth,  for  it  is  an  animal  that 
costs  little  for  maintenance,  and  yields  large  prorits.     It   seems, 
however,  to  be  more  fond  of  the  mountains  and  steep  rocks  than 
cultivated  fields.     Its  favourite  food  is  the  buds  of  young  trees. 
It  is  capable  of  enduring  the  greatest  degree  of  atmospheric  heat ; 
the  tempest  does  not  alarm,  nor  rain  incommode  it. 

46.  The  milk  of  the  goat  is  rich,  nourishing,  and  medicinal. 
The  young  is  called  a  kid,  the  flesh  of  which  is  as  mucfr  esteemed 
by  some  persons  as  that  of  a  lamb. 

47.  [Certain  exotic  races  furnish  a  most  valuable  down  or  fur. 
Those  of  Thibet  called  Cashmere  goats,  are  the  most  remarkable 
in  this  respect:  it  is  from  their  wool  that  the  beautiful  shawls  of 
the  East  a  re  manufactured,  which  are  so  much  used  by  the  Turks, 
and  the  imitation  of  which,  for  some  years  past,  has  become   an 
important  branch  of  industry  in  France.     The  goats  of  Angora, 
also,  a  great  number  of  which  are  raised  in  Asia  Minor,  have  an 
extremely  fine  fleece,  and  those  of  the  table  land  of  Kirgis  almost 
rival  the  goats  of  Thibet.     Unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  them  into  Europe 

48.  Gloves   of  a  fine  kind  are  made  of  Goat  skins  prepared 
by  maceration,  and  it  is  from  these  skins  that  real  Morocco 

*      43.  What  is  the  wild  Goat?     What  is  Bezoar  ? 

44.  What  is  the  Ib  x  ? 

45.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Domestic  Goat? 

46.  What  is  a  Kid  ? 

47.  For  what  are  Goats  of  Cashmere  most  valued? 

48.  To  what  purposes  are  Goat  skins  applied  ? 


SHEEP.  117 


leather  is  manufactured,  being  supposed  to  take  the  dye  better 
than  those  of  sheep.  Cordovan,  another  knd  of  leather  Is  pre- 
pared from  Goat  skins,  a  manufacture  that  is  extensively  carried 
on  in  Peru.] 


LESSON    XI. 

Genus  of  Sheep,  (rfrnali,  Mouflon,  Domestic  Sheep) — Wool. — 
Merinos  — Genus  of  the  OJL;  (Common  OJL;  •/luroch,  Buffalo, 
Bison,  Yack.)—Use  of  Oxen.— Milk.— Butter. — Cheese. — 
Leather. 

ORDER  OF  CETACEA. — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities  of 
Organization — Habits. — Division  into  tico  Fani'lics. — Her- 
bivorous Cetacea. — Manati.  —  Ordinary  Cetacca. — Ji^paratns 
of  the  Blowers. — Genus  of  Dolphins,  (Dolphin,  Porpoise. ) — 
Genus  of  Narwhals — Genus  of  (Jachalots. —  Organization. — 
Habits. — Spermaceti.  — Genus  of  Whales — Organization  mtd 
Habits. —  Whalebone.— -Fat. —  Uses. —  Whale  Fishing. 

1.  The  genus  SHEEP, — Oris,     is  composed  of  animals  whose 
horns  are  directed  at  first  backwards,  and  then  incline  spirally, 
more  or  less  forwards ;  they  are  without  a  beard,   and    have  a 
convex  chanfrin ;  in  other  respects  they  do  not  differ  very  much 
from  goats. 

Of  the  ditferent  species  of  the  genus  sheep,  we  will  mention : 

2.  The  Aryali  of  Siberia, — Ooix  rfutmon — ( 1'late  5.  fiy.    11.) 
The  male  of  this  species  has  very  large  horns,  which   are  trian- 
gular at  their  base,  rounded  at  the  angles,   flattened   in    front, 
striated  behind:  the  female  has  compressed  horns  in  the  form  of 
a  scythe;  the  spring  coat  is  smooth:  of  a  grayish,  fawn  colour, 
while  that  of  winter  is  hard,  thick,  and  reddish  gray,  with  a  white 
or  whitish  muzzle,  throat  and  belly ;  the  tail  is  very  short. 

3.  This  animal,  which,  it  seems,  should  be  considered  as  the 
parent   and    stock   of  all    varieties   of  the   domestic  Sheep,   is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  Kamtschatka,  in  all  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Central  Asia  and  on  the  highest    mountains   of  Bar- 
bary,  of  Corsica,  and  of  (Jreece.     It  grows  to  be  as  large   as  a 
deer :  it  is  an  agile,  active  animal,  with  a  very  delicate  sense  of 
smell,  and  is  taken  with  very  great  difficulty      Its   flesii  is   very 
much  esteemed  by  the  natives  of  kamtschatka. 

1.  What  kind  of  animal-  b  long  to  ih«  genus  of  Sneep? 
Si.   What  are  the  the  >-p  c.fic  characters  of  the  Argai? 
3    What  atiimiil  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  stock  of  common  Sheep' 
Where  is  the  Argali  found  ? 

U2 


118  SHEEP. 


4.  The    Moitflon   of    Sardinia, — Ovis    Musimon. — (Plate    5. 
fig.  12.)  which  is  found  in  Europe,  Africa,  and   America,  differs 
from  the  JJrgali  in  never  growing  to  the  same  size :  the  female 
rarely  has  horns,  and  when  they  do  exist,  they  are  very  small. 
There  are  varieties  of  the  Mouflon  which  are  partly  or  entirely 
black:  and  others  that  are  more  or  less  white.     This  animal  lives 
in  troops 

5.  The    Domestic    Sheep, —  Ovis  Aries: — when  young,  it  is 
called  a  lamb,  the  female,  a  sheep,  and  the  male  a  ram  ;  this  ani- 
mal is  too  well  known  to  require  us  to  enter  into  details  upon  its 
habits  or  zoological  characters      It  is  reared  in  numerous  flocks, 
for  the  sake  of  the  fleece,  which  consists  of  crisped  hair  called 
wool,  and  is  sheared  every  year.     It  is  manufactured  into  stuffs, 
cloth,  &c.     The  fat  of  these  animals,  which  is  white  and  brittle, 
is  made  into  candles ;  the  intestines  twisted  and  dried,  form  cat- 
gut; and  their  excrement  affords  a  warm  compost  which  con- 
tributes powerfully  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil.     The  skin, 
freed  of  its  wool,  is  manufactured  into  various  sorts  of  soft  leather, 
used  for  making  gloves,  lining  shoes,  &c ,  and  prepared  by  other 
processes,  it  is  known  as  clmmnis  feather,  paichmeut,  vellum,  fyc. 
Merii.o   sheep,  are  remarkable  for  the   fineness  of  their  wool. 
Formerly,  their  exportation  from  Spain  was  prohibited ;  but  they 
are  now  carried  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  United  States. 
The  first  Merinos  were  imported  into  France  in  1776,  and  there 
are  now  in  that  country  about  500,000,  without  counting  the 
mixed  breeds. 

6.  The  shearing  of  sheep  takes  place  every  year  about  the 
month  of  May,  June,  or  July,  when,  on  separating  the  locks  of 
wool,   a  new   growth   is   perceived.      Sometimes,  the  wool   is 
washed  on  the  back  of  the  animal  before  it  is  cut ;  but  more  fre- 
quently it  is  cut  without  washing,  because  the  greasiness  which 
it  possesses  protects  it  from  the  attacks  of  insects. 

7.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  France  thirty  millions  of 
sheep,   which  yield  annually  about  fifty  millions  of  pounds  of 
wocl,   besides   which  about  fifteen  or  twenty  millions  of  pounds 
are    imported   from  Germany,   to  supply  the  manufactories  of 

"  woollen  goods.  England  also  imports  from  Germany  about 
twenty  five  millions  of  pounds  annually,  the  produce  of  that 
country  not  being  sufficient,  though  very  large,  to  meet  the  de- 
mand of  the  manufacturers. 

4.  What  is  the  Mouflon  ? 

5.  To    what   u.-es   is  the    domestic  Sheep  applied  ?     What  are  Merino 
Sheep  ? 

6.  How  is  wool  obtained  ? 

7.  In  what  countries  do  S!.e p  most  abound  7 


OX.-AUROCFJ.  jl9 


8.  The  genus  of  the  Ox, —  fto.v, — comprises  those  animals,  the 
horns  of  which  are  directed  from  the  side,  and  turn  upwards  or 
forwards  in  the  form  of  a  crescent ;  they  are  Jarge  animals  with 
a  broad  muzzle,  short  stature,  and  stout  limbs,  and  are  found  on 
both  continents.  They  are  also  distinguished  by  a  fold  of  skin  that 
hangs  beneath  the  neck,  which  is  called   Deiclcp.     They  delight 
in  humid  and  marshy  situations      They  are  slower  and  heavier 
than  other  Ruminants.     The  principal  sptcies  are:    the  common 
Ox,  the  Auroch,  both  originally  of  Europe,  the  Buffalo,  the  Yack, 
which  belong  to  Asia,  the  Bisun  and  iMusk  Ox,  which  are  indige- 
nous to  North  America. 

9.  The  Common  (Js, —  Bos   7'aurn^ — which   when   young,   is 
called  a  6V///,  is  characterised  by  a  flat  forehead  which  is  longer 
than  it  is  broad ;  round  horns  placed  at  the  two  extremities  of  a 
ridge  which  separates  the  forehead  from   the  occiput,   and  four 
mammae  which  are  arranged  in  pairs      The  male  is  called  a  Bull 
and  the  female  a  Cow.     As  powerful  as  he  is  docile,  the  Ox  is  of 
great  use  in  domestic  economy    He  draws  waggons,  ploughs,  &c. 

10.  His  flesh,  which  is  very  succulent,  is  eaten  both  fresh 
and  salted.     By  boiling,  his  skin  forms  glue;  by  tanning,  it  is  con- 
verted into  Li  a  for,  which  is  chiefly  manufactured  into  shoes ; 
the  hair  enters  into  the  composition  of  certain  mortars ;  the  horns 
are  manufactured  into  toys,  combs,  and  other  utensils.     His  fat 
is  burned  ;  his  blood  makes  good  manure,  and  is  used  to  manu- 
facture a  precious  blue  colour,  known  under  the  name  of  Prussian 
JJ/ue ;  it  is  also  employed  in  refining  sugars,  and  fish  oils.     The 
membrane  that  covers  the  intestines,  when  dried,  forms  what  is 
called  Gold-beaten?  skin>  and  is  used  for  covering  balloons,  for 
beating  gold  into  extremely  thin  leaves;  and  the  milk  of  the  cow 
yields  cream,  cheese  and  butter.     There  are  oxen  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  but  they  are  originally  from  Europe  and  Asia 

1 1  The  Jlttrocli, —  bus  Urns, — is  the  largest  quadruped  proper 
to  Europe.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  domestic  Ox,  by  its 
arched  forehead,  which  is  broader  than  it  is  high,  by  the  horns 
being  attached  below  the  occipital  crest,  oy  a  sort  of  curly  uool 
that  covers  the  head  and  neck  of  the  male,  forming  a  short  beard 
under  the  throat,  and  by  an  additional  pair  of  ribs  It  is  there- 
fore plain,  that  it  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  Aurochs  form  the 
original  stock  of  our  horned  cattle. 

8.  What  an'mals  belong  to  th  •  genus  of  the  Ox  ?     What  is  the  Dewlap  7 
What  ;ire  the  principal  species  of  this  genus  / 
y.  How  is  the  conin.on  Ox  char.c  erised  ? 

10.  To  what  purposes  is  the  bo  !y  o1'  the  Ox  applied?     What  is  Prussian 
blue  made  ot  ?     W.  at  is  Gold-healers'  skin?     What  use  is  made  of  it' 
11     W h ;,t  is  the  Auroch? 
11 


120  BUFFALO.— YACK.— MUSK  OX.— BISOM. 


12.  The  Auroch  formerly  inhabited  all  temperate  Europe ;  now 
the  race  is  almost  extinct,  and  only  a  few  individuals   are  found, 
that  have  taken  refuge  in  the  great  marshy   forests  of  Lithuania, 
of  the  Krapacs,  and  of  Caucasus. 

13.  The  B*ffaio,  —  8nsBnbalns, — (Plate  6,  fig  1.) -originally 
from  India  and  naturalised  in  Italy  and  Greece,  has  a  convex  fore 
head,  higher  than  wide,  and  the  horns  marked  in  front  by  a  longi 
tudinal  ridge.     It  is  less  docile  than  the  Ox,  but  is  more  robust, 
arid  more  easily  fed.     Its  skin  is  converted  into  a   strong,  dura- 
ble kind  of  leather  ;  the  horns  are  of  a  very  fine  grain,  and  are 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish.     The  Buffalo  loves  to  wallow  in  the 
iriud  ;  he  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  sometimes  dives  to  a  depth 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  to  tear  up  with  his  horns  certain  aquatic 
plants  that  he  eats  while  swimming. 

14.  The    Yuck,   also  called   the   Horse-tailed    Buffalo,   and 
Grunting  Cow  of  Tartar y, — Ros  (irHnniens,—(I*latr5tfiy.  13.) 
— is  a  species  originally  from  Thibet,  and  is  of  small  size.     The 
Yack  has  a  long  mane  on  his  back  and  his  tail  is  covered   with 
long  hairs  like  that  of  a  horse     This  tail  constitutes  the  standards 
still  used  among  the  Turks  to  distinguish  the  superior  officers. 

15.  The  Mask  Ox  of  Jtawricti, —  U  a    M<s<-lintns,—(l"ate  6. 
fig.  2.) — inhabits  the  most  northern  parts  of  America,  under  the 
polar  circle,  and  climbs  rocks  almost  as  well  as  a  goat.     The 
horns  meet   at  their  base  in  front  of  the  forehead  almost  on  a 
straight  line,  and  are   directed    outwards  and  downwards.     It 
stands  low,  and  is  covered  with  tufted  hair  that  reaches  to   the 
ground.     The  tail  is  very  short.     It  diffuses  a  strong   smell   of 
musk  with  which  its  flesh  is  also  impregnated.     The  Esquimaux 
make  caps  of  the  tail,  the  hairs  of  which  falling  over  their  face, 
defend  them  from  mosquitoes 

16.  The  Hisnui  or  American  Ihiffa  o, —  Bos  Rison ';   Bos  Jlmeri- 
camis, — also  inhabits  North  America,  but  not  to  so  high  a  latitude 
as  the  preceding.     He  is  met   with  from  Louisiana  to  within  a 
few  degrees  of  the  polar  circle.     He  lives  in  great  herds,  pell-mell 
with  deer  and  stags  on  the  vast  open  savannas  or  prairies,  and 
abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers,  and  is  always  found  near  salt-licks.     He  is  smaller 
thin  the  Auroch,  but  larger  than  the  domestic  Bull.     Lis  limbs 
and  tail  are  short.     The  anterior  part  of  his  body  is  very  thick 

12.  Where  is  the  Auroch  found  ? 

13.  What   is   the    Buffalo?     Win  re  i*  it  found  ?     To  what  uses  is  it  ap. 
plied  ?     What  are  its  habit-? 

14.  What  is  the  Y  .  k  ?     What'  UPC  is  made  of  its  tail? 

15.  Wh  re  is  the  Musk  Ox  fi>und  ?     What  kind  of  an  animal  is  it  ? 

16.  Where  is  the  biso.i  lou.id  ?     What  are  its  character*  ? 


BISON,  OR,  AMERICAN  BUFFALO.  121 

and  strong,  but  the  croup  is  comparatively  more  feeble.  A  fleshy 
hump  rises  on  the  withers  between  the  two  shoulders;  this  we/y, 
the  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  Bison,  is  regarded  by  the 
Indians  as  a  luscious  morsel.  His  head  is  large;  his  horns  round, 
short,  almost  straight,  and  set  wide  ap.irt  at  the  base  A  thick, 
curly  wool  of  a  brownish  black  colour,  which  in  winter,  grows 
very  long,  covers  his  head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  while  the  rest  of 
his  body  is  furnished  with  smooth  black  hair.  His  skin  is  very 
thick  and  spongy,  like  that  of  the  Buffalo.  Although  neavy  in 
appearance,  he  is  swift  of  foot;  he  is  savage,  but  may  be  tamed 
if  taken  young. 

17  The  flesh  is  juicy,  and  well  flavoured.  The  skin  makes  an 
excellent  blanket  when  dressed  ;  and  the  wool  has  in  England 
been  manufactured  into  a  fine  cloth.  Pemmican  is  made  of  the 
flesh  and  fat  of  the  American  Buffalo. 

18.  "  The  Bison  wanders  constantly  from  place  to  place,  either 
from  being  disturbed  by  hunters,  or  in  quest  of  food.  They  are 
much  attracted  by  the  soft  tender  grass,  which  springs  up  after  a 
fire  has  spread  over  the  prairie.  In  winter,  they  scrape  away 
the  snow  with  their  feet,  to  reach  the  grass.  The  Bison  is,  in 
general,  a  shy  pnimal,  and  takes  to  flight  immediately  on  wind- 
ing an  enemy,  which  the  acuteness  of  its  sense  of  smell  enables 
it  to  do  fro'n  a  great  distance.  They  are  less  wary  when  they 
are  assembled  together  in  numbers,  and  will  often  blindly  follow 
their  leaders,  regardless  of,  or  trampling  down  the  hunters  posted 
in  their  way.  It  is  dangerous  for  the  hunter  to  shew  himself 
after  having  wounded  one,  for  it  will  pursue  him,  and,  although 
its  gait  may  appear  heavy  and  awkward,  it  will  have  no  great 
difficulty  in  overtaking  the  fleetest  runner.  One  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company's  clerks  was  descending  the  Saskatchewan  in  a 
boat,  and  having  one  evening  pitched  his  tent  for  the  night,  he 
went  out  in  the  dusk  to  look  for  game.  It  had  become  nearly 
dark  when  he  fired  at  a  Bison  bull  which  was  galloping  over  a 
small  eminence,  and  as  he  was  hastening  forward  to  see  if  his 
shot  had  taken  effect,  the  wounded  beast  made  a  rush  at  him. 
He  had  the  presence  of  mind  to  seize  the  animal  by  the  long  hair 
on  its  forehead,  as  it  struck  him  on  the  side  with  its  horns,  and 
*>eing  a  remarkably  tall  and  powerful  man,  a  struggle  ensued, 
which  continued  till  his  wrist  was  severely  sprained,  and  his 
arm  rendered  powerless.  He  then  fell,  and,  after  receiving  two 
or  three  blows,  became  senseless.  Shortly  after,  he  was  found 
^y  his  companions,  lying  bathed  in  blood,  being  gored  in  several 

17.  To  what  purpose  is  the  Bison  applied  ? 

18.  Is  liie  Biioa  at  ail  times  asava»e  animal? 


<22 ORDER  OF  GET  ACE  A. 

places,  and  the  Bison  was  couched  beside  him,  apparently    wait- 
ing to  renew  the  attack,  had  he  shown  any  signs  of  life. 

19.  "  The  favourite  Indian  method  of  killing  the  Bison,  is 
by  riding  to  the  fattest  of  the  herd  on  horseback,  and  shooting 
it  with  an  arrow.  When  a  large  party  of  hunters  are  engaged 
in  this  way  on  an  extensive  plain,  the  spectacle  is  very  imposing, 
and  the  young  men  have  many  opportunities  of  displaying  their 
skill  and  agility." — Ricliardsoii's  Travels. 


ORDER     OF     CETACEA. 

20.  Whales,  Dolphins,  Porpoises,  and  other  animals  of  analo- 
gous structure,  designated    by  naturalists  under  the  name    ol 
Ct-facea,  so  closely  resemble  fishes  in  their  external  form,  as  well 
as  in  their  mode  of  living,  that  the  ignorant  always  regard  them 
as  belonging  to  this  class ;  but,  if  we  do  not  confine  ourselves  to  a 
superficial  examination  of  these  singular  beings,  and  study  their 
organization  and  the  mechanism  of  their  (unctions,   we  shall  at 
once  be  convinced  that,  in  every  important  particular,  they  depart 
from  the  fishes,  to  approach  the  ordinary   mammalia.     Like  the 
first,  they  have  the  trunk  seemingly  confounded  with  the  head, 
and  continued  without  interruption  into  a  thick  tail,   terminated 
bv  a  broad  fin,  and   the  anterior  extremities  transformed  into 
fins ;  they  want  the  posterior  extremities,  and  their  skin  is  not 
furnished  with  hair  like  that  of  ordinary  mammals;  but,  although 
they  keep  constantly  in  the  water,  they  have  no  branchia3,  and 
respire  through  the  medium  of  lungs ;  which  obliges  them  to  rise 
frequently  to  the  surface,  to  breathe  the  air  which  is  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  their  life.     Their  blood  is  warm ;  the  heart 
has  two  ventricles  and  two  auricles;  their  young  are  born  alive, 
and  they  are  provide  I  with  a  mammary  apparatus  for   suckling 
them. 

21,  Consequently  Cetacea  are  true  mammals;  but,  in  place  of 
being  organized  for  living  on  land,  like  quadrupeds  of  this  class, 
they   possess  important  modifications  in  their  structure   which 
renders  these  anirrals  essentially  aquatic,  and  the  density  of  the 
element  which  they  inhabit,  permits  them  to  acquire  dimensions 
which  would  have  been  incompatible  with  the  manner  of  living  and 
moving  proper  to  other  mammalia ;  it  is  in  this  group  that  the 
giants  of  the  creation  are  found.     The  very  largest  quadrupeds 


19.  What  is  the  favourite  Indian  method  of  killing  the  Bison  ? 

20.  Why  is  a  Whale  not  a  fLu  ? 

21.  What  are  Cetacea? 


GET  ACE  A.  123 


are  small  in  comparison  to  many  of  the  Cetacea,  and  notwith- 
standing these  latter  are  so  immeasurably  large,  they  swim  with 
great  rapidity.  The  air  enclosed  in  their  chest,  and  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  fat  on  their  body  helps  to  sustain  them  in  the 
water  surrounding  them,  and  their  general  form  is  perfectly  fitted 
for  the  kind  of  movements  they  are  called  upon  to  perform.  Their 
long,  thick  tail  is  an  oar  as  powerful  as  that  with  which  nature  has 
endowed  the  most  vigorous  and  most  active  fishes,  and  the  fin 
which  terminates  it,  in  place  of  being  vertical,  as  in  the  latter,  is 
placed  horizontally,  a  position  which  is  singularly  favourable  for 
raising  them  to  the  surface  when  they  require  to  breathe  the  air. 
'22.  Their  anterior  extremities,  as  we  have  said,  are  trans- 
formed into  fins :  nevertheless,  these  organs  possess  the  basis  of 
the  same  structure  as  the  arm  of  man,  the  paw  of  a  dog,  or  the 
wing  of  a  bat.  We  find  in  them  the  same  bones,  except  that  the 
humerus  and  bones  of  the  fore  arm  are  shortened,  and  those  of 
the  hand  flattened  and  enveloped  in  a  tendinous  membrane,  which 
confines  motion  almost  exclusively  to  the  articulation  of  the 
shoulder.  Sometimes,  the  phalanges  are  more  numerous  than  in 
other  mammals;  in  other  respects  these  oars  only  serve  the  ani- 
mal in  preserving  his  equilibrium  and  changing  his  course ;  the 
tail  being  his  true  organ  of  motion.  The  posterior  extremities 
are  entirely  wanting :  but  we  find  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
abdomen,  two  or  three  rudimentary  bones,  suspended  in  the  flesh, 
which  are  the  vestiges  of  the  pelvis.  (See  First  Book  of  Natural 
History.)  Beneath  the  caudal  vertebrae,  there  are  bones  in  the 
.form  of  the  letter  V,  which  afford  points  of  attachment  to  the 
flexor  muscles  of  the  tail,  and  increase  their  strength  :  it  is  to  be 
remarked  also,  that  the  cervical  vertebrae,  although  seven  in  num- 
ber, are  very  short,  and  generally,  almost  entirely  soldered 
together.  Finally,  the  petrous  bone,  that  part  of  the  cranium 
which  encloses  the  internal  ear,  in  place  of  being  confounded  witn 
other  parts  of  the  temporal  bone,  is  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
head,  ana  adheres  to  it  by  ligaments 

23.  The  senses  generally  seem  to  be  obtuse  in  these  animals 
They  never  have  an  external  ear ;  they  often  want  the  olfactory 
nerves;    the  tongue   is   almost   irnmoveable,  and   their  skin  is 
generally  covered  with  the  thickest  kind  of  epidermic  layer.  They 
display  but  little  intelligence.     Their  brain  is  nevertheless  large, 
and  its  hemispheres  are  well  developed. 

24.  In  the  Cetacea,  the  apparatus  of  respiration  possesses  pecu- 
liarities of  structure,  the  utility  of  which  is  evident      The  nares 

22.  What  is  the  general  conf  .rmation  of  Cetacsa  ? 

23.  Do  the  Cetacea  possess  all  the  senses  in  perfection? 

21.  What  are  the  peculiant'es  of  the  apparatus  of  respiration ' 
11* 


12* HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

in  general  open  externally  on  the  top  of  the  head,  which  enables 
the  animal  to  breathe  the  air  without  raising  his  muzzle  out  of  the 
water,  arid  the  larynx  is  advanced  to  the  posterior  nares,  so  as  to 
establish,  independently  of  the  pharynx,  a  communication  be- 
tween the  nasal  fossae  and  the  lungs,  and  permit  him  to  fill  his 
mouth  with  water,  and  swallow  his  food  without  interrupting 
respiration.  The  stomach  of  the  Cetacea  generally  presents  as 
great,  if  not  greater,  complication  in  its  structure,  than  that  of  the 
Ruminants.  There  is  no  large  intestine  recognised,  and  their 
teeth,  when  they  exist,  are  all  alike. 

25.  This  order  is  composed  of  two  families  which  are  distin- 
guished by  their  regimen,  their  teeth  and  several  other  peculiari- 
ties of  organization,  and  may  be  recognised  by  the  position  of 
their  nares  ;  they  are : 

1st.  The  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA, —  Cetacea  Herbirora, — the 
nares  of  which  open  externally  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle; 

2d.  The  ORDINARY  CETACEA,  or  BLOWERS, — Cetacea  Ordinaria, 
— the  nares  of  which  open  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  head. 

FAMILY  OF  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

26.  The  food  of  these  animals  being  herbaceous,  they  possess 
molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns,  and  the  faculty  of  crawling  on  land, 
to  graze  along  the  sea  shore:  their  anterior  extremities  are  more 
flexible  than  those  of  other  Cetacea,  and  they  do  not  frequent 
the  high  sea.     From  the  circumstance  of  grazing  like  Ruminants, 
and   being  large  and  massive,  travellers  often  designate  them 
under  the  names  of  Sua-bult,  Sea-cow,  and  Sea-calf.     Sometimes 
they  are  termed    Mermaids, — Sea-wonieu, — and  it  is  probable 
these  have  been  in  question,  when  some  modern  navigators  said, 
they  had  met  with  Sirens  and  Tritons :  for  they  have  a  habit  of 
often  raising  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  out  of  the  water,  and 
their  mammae  being  on  the  chest,  the  hair   which   surrounds  the 
snout,  mk'ht  at  a  distance  appear  like  female  tresses;  and   then 
the  adroitness  with  which  they  sometimes  use  their  fins  to  carry 
their  young,  gives  them  in  certain  points,  some   remote  resem- 
blance to  the  human  species.     Their  stomach  is  divided  into  four 
pouches,  two  of  which  are  lateral. 

27.  The  principal  genera  of  this  family  are  the  Lama  at  Ins  and 
Diigongs.  , ;  ^ 

28  The  Lamanting, —  Manahis, — have  an  oblong  body  termi- 
nated by  an  elongated  oval  fin.  Vestiges  of  nails  are  found  on 

25    How  is  the  Order  of  Cetacea  divided  ? 

26.  What  kind  of  teeth  have  the  herbivorous  Cetacra  ?     What  are  Mer- 
maids?    What  is  the  character  of  the  s'emach  of  He  bivorous  Cetacea? 

27.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  family  of  Herbivorous  Cetacea  t 
28    What  are  Lamantins  ?     Why  have  they  been  called  Manati  ? 


DUGONG— ORDINARY  CETACEA. 


their  paws,  which,  having  a  coarse  resemblance  to  hands,  have 
obtained  for  these  animals  the  name  of  Manatus,  which  has 
been  corrupted  into  Lamanlin.  Their  head  is  terminated  by  a 
fleshy  muzzle,  furnished  with  hair,  and  they  have  eight  molars 
with  square  crowns,  throughout.  They  inhabit  the  warm 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  which 
they  sometimes  ascend  to  a  considerable  distance :  they  live  in 
troops,  often  land  and  are  readily  approached.  They  display  the 
greatest  attachment  for  their  companions.  The  Lamantin  is  some- 
times fifteen  feet  in  length.  The  flesh  is  eaten. 

29.  Dugonys,  — Huhcore  Dugwig,  —  inhabit  the  Indian  Seas, 
and  are  distinguished  from  the  Lamantins  by   their  elongated 
body,  the  crescent-form  of  their  caudal  fins,  and  the  pointed  tusks 
that  protrude  from  the  upper  jaw. 

FAMILY  OF  CETACEA  ORDINARIA,  OR  BLOWERS. 

30.  The  Cetacea  of  this   group  differ  from  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding by  having  their  mamma3  near  the  anus,  instead  of  being 
on  the  chest,  by  the  garniture  of  the  mouth,  the  teeth,   when 
they  exist,   being  pointed ;  by  their  carneous  regimen  ;  by  the 
position  of  the  nares,  &c.;  but  what  especially  distinguishes  them, 
is  the  singular  apparatus  which  has  obtained  for  them  the  name 
of  Blowers. 

31.  The  great  masses  of  water  that  these  animals  take  into 
their  vast  mouth  with  their  prey,  are  thrown  out  through  the 
nasal  fossa?,  in  the  form  of  jets  which  may  be  perceived  at  a  long 
distance.     For  this  purpose  the  blowers  move  their   tongue  and 
jaws  as  if  they  would  swallow  the  liquid ;  while  at  the  same  time 
the  commencement  of  the  oesophagus  closes  with  so  much  force 
as  to  prevent  its  descent  to  the  stomach,  and  retains  it  in  the 
pharynx.     The  veil  of  the  palate  at  once  intercepts  the  commu- 
nication between  the  mouth  and  the  swallow,  and  the  powerful 
muscles  which  surround  this  latter  cavity,  by  contracting,  expe. 
the  water,  which  finding  no  outlet  except  through  the  posterior 
nares,  passes  through  them  and  accumulates  in  two  great  mem- 
branous pouches,  situate  between  the  extremity  of  the  bony  por- 
tion of  the  nasal  canal  and  the  skin.     A  fleshy  valve,  arranged 
so  as  to  rise  up  when  the  water  presses  from  below  upwards, 

29.  How  are  Duerongs  distinguished  from  Lamantins  ? 

30.  In    what  particulars  do  animals  of  the  family  of  Ordinary  GeUcea 
differ  from  the  Herbivorous  Cetacea  / 

31.  What  is  the  anatomical  arrangement  which    enables  the   Blowers  to 
avoid  swallowing  the  water  they  take  into  the  mouth  ?     What  becomes  ot 
the  water  after  it  passes  through  the  posterior  nares?     What    prevents    the 
water  in  the  reservoirs  from  returning  to  the  pharynx,  when  they  contrac*  * 

V 


126 


DOLPHINS. 


and  to  intercept  all  communication  between  these  cavities  and  the 
nasal  fossae,  when  pressed  in  a  contrary  direction,  prevents  the 
water  forced  into  the  reservoirs  just  described,  from  descending 
into  the  nasal  fossae ;  then  the  fleshy  fibres,  which  come  in  the 
form  of  rays  from  all  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  cranium  to  be 
attached  to  the  two  bags,  by  contracting,  compress  them  violently, 
and  expel  the  water,  which  escapes  externally  through  the  narrow 
opening  of  the  nares,  (called  spiracle,  rent,  or  blow-link,)  and 
forms  a  jet  which  sometimes  ascends  as  high  as  nearly  forty  feet. 

32.  These   animals  do  not  chew  their  food,   but  swallow  it 
rapidly.     Their  stomach  consists  of  from  live  to   seven  distinct 
pouches.     Many  of  them  have  on  the  back  a  vertical  fin,  formed 
of  tendinous  matter  but  which  is  not  sustained   by  bones.     The 
skin  is  smooth,  and  generally  without  a  vestige  of  hair. 

33.  This  family  is  divided  into  four  principal  genera,  which 
may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters : 

(Genera.) 

f     Furnished    with    small  )  n 
The  head  in  pro-     conic.l  teeth  in  both  jaws.  \  W 
portion  to  the  rtstj 

of  the  body.     The  |      Without  ordinary  teelh, "] 
mouth  I  but  armed   wiih   a    great  j-  NARWHALS. 

I  horizontal  tusk. 
CETACEOUS 

BLOWERS-  f-     T.-eth  in  the  lower  jaw :  ; 

The  head   equal  j  no  whalebone.  \  ^ 

(o   a  third,  or  one-^ 

hah  of  the   whole  I      Without  teeth  :    whale-  £  w 
length.  L  bone  in  the  upper  jaw. 

34.  Dolphins  are  divided,  according  to  the  form  of  the  head 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  dorsal  fin,  into  Dolphins  properly 
so  called,  Porpoises,  &c. 

35.  DOLPHINS    PROPERLY   so  CALLED, — Defphinws, — are  recog- 
nised by  a  sort  of  beak  formed  by  the  muzzle,  which  is  more 
slender  than  the  rest  of  the  head,  abruptly  separating  from  the 
convex  forehead:  they  have  a   dorsal  tin,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  conical  teeth  placed  along  both  jaws ;  they  count  in 
all  from  one  hundred  and  sixty  eight,  to  one  hundred  and  ninety, 
according  to  the  species. 

32.  Do  these  animals  chew  their  fooJ  ?     What  kind  of  a  stomach  have 
they  ?     Is  their  skin  rouyh  or  smooth  ? 

33.  How   is  this  family  divided  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  have  Dolphins  ? 
What  kind   of  tetth   have   Narwhiils?     Are  the  heads  or  the^e  annuals  ex- 
ceedingly large  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  have  Cachalots  ?     Whai  kind  of  teeth 
*»ave  Whales  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  head  of  Cachalots  and  While*1 

34.  How  are  the  Dolphins  divided? 

35.  How  are  Dolphins  properly  so  called  distinguished  ? 


PORPOISES.  127 


36.  These  animals  are  the  mo~t  carnivorous,  and  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  the  most  cruel  of  all  the  Cetacea.  Their  skin,  which 
is  smooth,  is  ordinarily  bluish  black  above,  and  white  or  whitish 
below.  The  vent,  directed  vertically,  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent,  sometimes  of  a  straight  line,  and  is  often  found  on 
a  line  with  the  eyes.  Most  of  them  have  a  triangular  fin  on  the 
back.  Their  brain  is  generally  remarkable  for  its  developement 
and  the  depth  of  its  convolutions.  These  animals  are  celebrated 
for  their  swiftness,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  fables  the  ancients 
have  mingled  with  their  history,  and  on  account  of  a  species  ol 
religious  worship  they  received  amongst  the  Greeks.  They  live 
in  numerous  troops,  of  which  the  strongest  seem  to  be  the  leaders, 
and  display  strong  attachment  for  their  young;  they  often  ac- 
company ships  to  seize  upon  fishes  attracted  by  the  refuse  thrown 
overboard,  and  sometimes  they  have  been  known  to  follow  a  ves- 
sel throughout  a  long  voyage,  playing  under  fhe  bows,  while  she 
cleaves  the  waves  with  all  the  rapidity  that  wind  and  sails  can 
communicate.  It  is  these  peculiar  habits,  joined  to  a  degree  of 
intelligence  far  superior  to  that  of  fishes,  with  which  the  ignorant 
are  always  disposed  to  compare  these  animals,  that  have  obtained 
for  them  their  ancient  reputation  for  sociability ;  the  poetic  im- 
agination of  the  Greeks  created  for  the  Dolphin  an  assemblage 
of  perfections,  moral  and  physical,  which  the  human  species  is 
far  from  possessing.  They  placed  its  image  in  their  temples,  im- 
pressed it  on  their  coins,  on  their  medals  and  made  it  the  attribute 
or  symbol  of  the  god  of  the  sea;  they  employed  its  image  to 
recal  the  memory  of  a  host  of  events  real  or  fabulous,  and  to  ex- 
press moral  precepts ;  finally,  they  associated  it  with  a  great 
number  of  their  divinities,  and  what  is  singular,  the  ancients 
never  represented  it  with  that  exactness  which  they  habitually 
observed  in  imitating  nature,  but  as  if  they  designed  to  idealize  it. 

37.  The  species  of  cetacea  which  has  received  so  many  honours 
seems  to  be  the  Common  Dolpliin, —  Delpkinna  De/pltis, — It  is 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  long  and  is  found  in  every  sea.  It  is  black 
above  and  white  below ;  it  has  a  depressed  beak,  which  is  armed 
on  each  side  with  from  forty  two  to  forty  seven  small,  pointed  teeth. 

38  PORPOISES,—  Pkocveua, — differ  from  the  preceding  in  their 
short  muzzle,  uniformly  convex,  which  does  not  resemble  a  beak. 
Their  name,  which  signifies  hog-fish,  has  been  given  to  them  on 
•account  of  the  quantity  of  fat  found  beneath  the  skin. 

36.  What  are  the  habits  of  Dolphins  ? 

37.  What  is  the  common  Dolphin?     What  is  the  number  of  its  treth? 

38.  How  do  Porpoises  differ  from  Dolphins? 


128 GRAMPUS.-NATUVKAL.— CACHALOT. 

39.  The  Common  Porpoise, —  Dc.lphinus  Phoccena^ — (Plate  6. 
fig.  6.) — which  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  Cetac?a,  never  exceeds 
four  or  five  feet  in  length.     It  lives  in  numerous  troops. 

40.  Another  species  of  Porpoise  known  under  the*  name  of 
Grampus, —  Delphiniis  G/adiflor, — is  the  largest  animal  of  this 
tribe  of  Cetacea,  often  attaining  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet 
in  length.     It  is  the  most  relentless  enemy  of  the  whale.     They 
attack  it  in  troops,  and  torment  it  until  it  opens  its  mouth,  when 
they  devour  the  tongue. 

41.  The  NARWHALS, — Monodon,— closely  resemble  porpoises, 
but  they  have  no  teeth  properly  so  called.     The  mouth  is  armed 
with  two  straight,  horizontal  tusks,  one  of  which  generally  re- 
mains concealed'  in  the  alveolus  while  the  other  acquires  a  very 
considerable  length,  sometimes  ten  feet,  and  is  generally  furrowed 
spirally.     These. tusks  were  for  a  long  time  mistaken  for  the 
horns  of  a  fabulous  quadruped,  the  Unicorn      Only  one  species 
of  Narwhal  is  known  :  it  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  principally  be- 
tween Greenland  and   Iceland.     Its  skin  is  marbled  brown  and 
whitish,  and  its  length  is  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  feet.     Its  vent  is 
on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  it  has  no  dorsal  fin.     It   swims  with 
great  rapidity,  and  is  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  whale,  which  it 
attacks  in  troops,  inflicting  deep  wounds  with  its  tusks      Fisher- 
men seek  it  for  the  excellent  oil  obtained  from  its  fat,  a  single 
Narwhal  yielding  from  two  to  three  tons.     The  tusks  are  also 
employed  for  the  same  purposes  as  ivory. 

42.  The   CACHALOTS, —  Physeter,  —  ( Plate   6,  fig.  9,) -are 
Cetacea  with  a  very  voluminous,  inflated  head,  particularly  in 
front,  whose  lower  jaw    is  armed  with    a  row  of  cylindrical 
teeth,  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  enter  into  corresponding 
cavities  in  the  upper  jaw  which  has  neither  teeth  nor   whale- 
bone, (balen.)    The  head  of  these  animals  is  enormous,  and  very 
much  swelled-out  anteriorly.     Its  structure  is  very  singular;  all 
above  the  face  and  cranium  is  formed  into  a  large  oval  basin,  the 
edges  of  which  rise  behind  six  feet  above  the  cranium  and  gradu- 
ally diminish  in  front ;  the  parietes  of  this  great  cavity  are  chiefly 
formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  superior  maxillary  bones,  which 
joins  a  vertical  crest  of  the  occipital  bone,  and  these  latter  give  in- 

39.  Wh;it  is  the  common  Porpoise? 

40.  What  is  the  Grampus? 

41.  What  are  Narwhals?     What  is  the  Unicorn  ?    To  what  purposes  are 
Narwhals  applied  ? 

42.  What  are  Cachalots  ?     What  kind  o**  teeth  have  they  ?     What  is  the 
r»ze  of  their  head?     What  are  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the    head  of 
Hie  Sperm  Wnale  ?     In  what  part  of  the  animal  is  spermaceti  found  7 


SPERMACETI.— AMBERGRIS.—  SPERM  WHALE.  129 

sertion,  by  their  edges,  to  a  sort  of  fibre-cartilaginous  cover, 
which  transforms  the  basin,  we  have  just  described,  into  a  long, 
cylindrical  cavity,  divided  into  two  stories  by  a  membranous 
partition,  also  extended  from  the  margin  of  one  maxillary  bone  to 
that  of  the  other.  These  two  chambers  are  filled  with  adipocire, 
a  sort  of  oil  which  becomes  fixed  on  cooling,  well  known  in  com- 
merce under  the  name  of  Spermaceti:  they  communicate  with 
canals  which  go  to  different  parts  of  the  body  and  are  connected 
with  the  sub-cutaneous  fatty  tissue  or  blubber,  and  also  contain 
adipocire:  in  proportion  as  the  great  upper  reservoir  is  emptied, 
it  refills  with  this  fatty  matter. 

43.  The  channel  of  the  vent,  (spiracle)  passes  obliquely  through 
this  mass  of  adipocire  and  opens  a  little  to  the  left,  near  the  supe- 
rior edge  of  the  snout  which  terminates  the  head  of  the  Cachalot 
in  front.    The  jets  of  water  spouted  from  it,  are  directed  obliquely 
forwards ,  they  ascend  higher  and  occur  more  frequently  than  in 
the  whale,  and  are  attended  with  a  noise  which  may  be  heard  at 
a  long  distance.     The  layer  of  fat,  which  lies  beneath  the  skin, 
constituting  what  is   called  blubber  by  whalers,  is  not  so  thick 
and  does  not  furnish  so  much  oil,  as  in  the  whale.     The  odorous 
substance  known  under  the  name  of  Ambergris^  sometimes  met 
with   floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  appears  to  be  a  morbid 
concretion  formed  in  the  intestines  of  these  animals. 

44.  The  Cachalot  inhabits,  from  choice,  the  equatorial  regions 
of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.     They  are  met  with  in  pretty 
numerous  bands  composed  of  females  led  by  two  or  three  males, 
which   are  much   larger  than  the  former.     They  seem  to  feed 
chiefly  on  the  large  mollusca  ;  but  we  are  assured  that  they  do  not 
spare  the  largest  fishes,  and  are  objects  of  terror  to  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  sea. 

45.  The  different  species  are  not  well  ascertained.     The  best 
known  is  the  common  sperm  whale  —  Physeter  Macrocephulus, — 
which   has  a  callous  prominence  in  place  of  a  dorsal  fin.     The 
muzzle,  which  is  of  a  cubic  form,  is  truncated  in  front,  and  the 
vent  or  spiracle,  which  is  double  in  most  other  cetacea,  is  single. 
The  length  of  this  animal  is  about  seventy  feet,  and  the  bi-lobed 
fin  which  terminates  the  tail  is  about  eight  feet  wide. 


43.  What  is  the  direction  of  the  water  ppouted  through  the  spiracle  of  the 
Cachalot?     What  is  blubber?     What  is  ambergris  ? 

44.  Where  does  the  Cachalot  resort  from  choice  ?     What  does  the  Sperm 
Whale  feed  upon  ? 

45.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Sperm  Whale  ?  Is  the  spiracle 
double  or  single  ?     What  is  the  size  of  this  animal? 

V2 


130 WHALES.— WHALEBONE. '_ 

46.  WHALES, —  ttalcena,  —  have  a  head  as  large  as  that  of  the 
Cachalot,  though  not  so  much  swelled  out  in  front ;  but  their  jaws 
are  without  teeth,  and  the  upper  one  which  is  keel-shaped,  is  fur- 
nished with  u: ha it> bo iic      This  name  is  given  to  great  horny  plates 
of  fibrous  texture,  which   are  very  elastic  and  fringed  at  their 
edges,   that  are  placed  transversely  like  the  teeth  of  a  como, 
strongly  locked  one  into  the  other  and  attached  to  the  jaw  at  their 
base,  so  as  to  extend  from  each  side  of  the  palate,  (Plate  6  fig.  8.) 
forming  a  sort  of  great  sieve  through  which,  the  water,  taken 
into  the  immense  mouth  of  the  animal,  partly  escapes,  without 
however  carrying  with  it  the  small  animals  it  contains, 

47.  From  the  size  of  Whales,  we  should  be  led  to  believe  that 
these  animals  would  devour  the  largest  fishes,  but  it  is  altogether 
otherwise ;  the  absence  of  teeth,  the  species  of  armature  of  their 
mouth  and  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  of  their  jaws  permit  them 
to  seize  only  small  marine  animals;  their  ordinary  food  consists 
of  small  mollusca,  of  Crustacea  a  few  lines  in  length,  and  of 
zoophytes  whose  bodies  are  soft  as  jelly,  and,  as  the  number  of 
these  beings  is  immense,  they  have  only  to  open  the  mouth  to 
swallow  them  by   millions.     They  are  very  voracious  and  eat 
almost  continually ;  the  water  which  enters  their  enormous  mouth 
every  time  it  is  opened,  is  ejected  through  the  nares,  forming  a  jet 
above  the  head  that  falls  in  a  sort  of  fine  shower.     Whales  swim 
with  great  rapidity ;  and  having  no  means  of  defence  and  being 
often  embarrassed  by  the  enormous  mass  of  their  body,  they  are 
incapable  of  defending  themselves  successfully  against  agile  and 
robust  enemies,  and  a  consciousness  of  their  weakness  renders 
them  fearful  and  timid ;  but  they  nevertheless  become  occasion- 
ally furious,  and  display  all  their  strength  in  defending  themselves, 
or  in  escaping  from  their  pursuers ;  when  they  strike  the  water 
with  their  tail,  they  produce  a  commotion  equal  to  that  from  a 
cannon  ball 

48.  Several   species   of  Whales  are  known.     That  which  is 
most  sought  by  whalers  is  the  Common  Whale, —  Balana   Myste- 
cetux, — (Ij'afe6,  fig.  7,) — which  is  recognised  by  its  having   no 
dorsal  fin ;  it  does  not  often  exceed  seventy  feet  in  length,  yet  it 
is  very  large,  and  the  mass  of  the  body  is  enormous.     It  has  been 
estimated  that  a  whale  of  only  seventy  feet  in  length,  weighs 
about  seventy  tons,  equal  to  the  weight  of  three  hundred  fat  oxen. 

46.  How  do  Whales  differ  from  Cachalots?  What  is  Whale  bone?  Of 
what  use  is,  it  to  the  Whulu  ? 

4 1  What  is  the  ordinary  food  of  Whales '(  What  are  the  habits  of 
Whales" 

48  How  is  the  Common  Wh  le  recognised  ?  What  is  thd  size  of  the 
bead  ? 


WHALE  FISHING.  131 


The  nead  is  aoouu  one  third  of  its  whole  length.  His  jaws  are 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long,  and  his  tail  very  nearly  twenty 
feet  in  breadth.  His  skin,  which  is  black  and  spongy,  is  often  in- 
vaded by  a  great  number  of  parasites.  Some  attach  themselves 
to  it  as  to  a  rock,  and  others  penetrate  into  its  substance  and  are 
nourished  at  its  expense.  The  layer  of  fat  (blubber)  which 
entirely  covers  the  body  of  this  animal  is  often  several  feet  in 
thickness,  and  yields  an  immense  quantity  of  oil ;  finally,  the 
whalebones  are  from  three  to  fifteen  feet  long,  according  to  the 
part  of  the  mouth  they  occupy. 

49.  The  catching  of  big-headed  cetacea,  which  naturalists 
separate  into  Cachalots  and  Whales,  but  which  mariners  often 
confound  under  the  latter  name,  is  among  the  most  important  of 
maritime  pursuits  from  the  products  it  affords,  and  from  the  in 
fluence  it  exercises  on  the  nautical  education  of  sailors.  Whale 
fisiiing  was  pursued  in  very  remote  times.  The  historians  of 
Norway,  and  the  account  of  his  voyages  related  by  Otho  to  Alfred 
the  Great,  King  of  England,  show  that,  from  the  ninth  century,  the 
Normans  devoted  themselves  actively  to  the  taking  of  whales  that 
approached  their  coasts,  and  it  seems  that  they  made  the  cordage 
used  in  the  rude  marine  of  that  people,  of  the  skins  of  these  cetacea. 
At  the  period  of  the  invasion  of  France  by  the  Normans,  whales 
were  seen  in  great  numbers  in  the  British  channel,  and  were  there 
attacked  by  the  fishermen.  From  time  immemorial  the  Basques  pur- 
sued these  animals  near  the  vicinity  of  the  shore  ;  and  gradually, 
as  whales  became  rare  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  they  pursued  them 
on  the  high  seas  :  to  these  hardy  mariners  belongs  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  to  carry  on  a  regular  fishery  for  whales  at  a  dis- 
tance. They  pursued  their  prey  along  the  coasts  of  Spain  to 
Cape  Finistere,  and  upon  those  shores  may  still  be  seen  the 
watch-towers  established  by  the  Basque  fishermen  for  the  dis- 
covery of  whales,  and  the  ruins  of  kilns  constructed  for  the 
rendering  or  "trying-out"  their  blubber.  It  appears  that  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  they  occupied  Oporto,  by 
the  right  of  conquest,  and  founded  colonies  in  the  vicinity  The 
fishery,  at  first  coast-wise,  was  alterwards  conducted  on  the  open 
ocean.  The  mariner's  compass  being  discovered,  the  Basques 
ventured  to  the  north  east  in  pursuit  of  whales,  and  it  is  affirmed 
that,  as  early  as  1372,  they  arrived  on  the  grand  bank  of  New- 
foundland, whence  they  continued  their  voyages  to  the  Gulf  of 
St  Lawrence,  and  the  coasts  of  Labrador.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  merchants  of  Bordeaux  fitted  out  two  whale  ships 

49.  Is  whale  fish  ng  a  modern  practice  'I     What  people  were  the  fim 
pursue  Whales  upon  the  high  seas  ? 
12 


WHALE  FISHING. 


for  the  Frozen  Ocean,  which  went  as  far  as  Greenland,  and  even 
to  Spltzbergen.  At  this  period,  whale  fishing  was  in  a  most 
flourishing  condition  on  all  the  coast  of  Beam  and  of  Aunis,  and 
continued  on  the  same  footing  till  the  commencement  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  but  then  the  Basques,  finding  no  protection 
under  their  national  flag,  were  disturbed  by  jealous  rivals,  who 
excluded  them  from  the  places  most  favourable  for  the  fishery,  and 
exacted  from  them  onerous  contributions.  This  branch  of  in- 
dustry then  began  to  decline,  and  was  lost  to  France,  when  in 
1636,  the  Spaniards  having  taken  and  sacked  Soccoa,  Cibourn, 
and  Saint-Jean-de-Luz,  seized  fourteen  large  ships,  from  Green- 
land, richly  laden  with  oil  and  whalebone. 

The  poor  Basque  fishermen  were  then  forced  to  serve  as  guides 
to  their  more  powerful  rivals ;  they  taught  the  art  of  harpooning 
the  whale  to  the  Dutch  and  also  to  the  English,  who  at  that  time, 
were  ardently  devoted  to  maritime  speculations,  and  understood 
all  the  advantages  that  would  accrue  to  them  from  this  distant 
fishery. 

The  fishing  of  the  Dutch  began  in  16 12,  and,  although  thwarted 
at  first  by  tie  rivalry  of  the  English,  rapidly  increased.  Rich 
companies  were  formed  for  pursuing  this  new  branch  of  industry, 
which  continued  to  be  a  source  of  prosperity  to  the  whole  country 
till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century ;  but  maritime  wars 
opposed  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  it,  and  since  the  peace,  Hol- 
land has  made  ineffectual  efforts  to  revive  the  prosperity  of  her 
whale  fishery,  which  is  doubtless  the  best  school  for  forming 
hardy  and  experienced  seamen. 

While  the  whale  fishery  was  so  productive  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  it  did  not  prosper  in  England :  but  the  enlightened  govern- 
ment of  that  country,  appreciating  its  utility,  made  efforts  to  in- 
sure its  success.  In  1732,  it  granted  high  premiums  to  all  vessels 
fitted  out  for  this  fishery,  and  this  encouragement  not  producing 
the  desired  effect  in  1749,  they  were  doubled  and  made  nearly 
equal  to  one  tenth  of  the  expense  of  the  outfits.  From  that  time 
this  branch  of  maritime  industry  rapidly  increased,  and  now  be- 
longs almost  exclusively  to  the  English,  and  their  ancient  colonies 
in  America,  the  United  States,which  have  become  their  rivals. 

We  have  already  seen  the  ground  of  this  fishery  moving  more 
and  more  towards  the  north,  in  proportion  as  the  whales  were 
destroyed  or  learned  to  fly  from  the  dangers  with  which  they 
were  threatened.  Until  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century  it  was 
carried  on  in  the  waters  of  England,  France  and  Spain  ;  but  in 
tne  sixteenth,  whales  were  no  longer  met  with  by  fishermen  except 
in  the  seas  of  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen.  These  animals  were 


I  WHALE  FISHING.  J33 

then  so  numerous  near  the  shores  and  even  in  the  small  inlets  of 
the  last  named  island,  that  whaling  vessels  promptly  completed 
their  cargoes,  lying  near  the  shore,  and  with  the  object  of  facilita- 
ting their  operations,  the  Dutch  established  on  a  small  island 
in  the  neighbourhood,  a  village  called  Smerremberg,  where  they 
brought  the  captured  whales,  and  tried  out  the  oil  to  be  after- 
wards transported  to  Europe ;  but  these  animals  soon  deserted 
the  coasts  of  Spitzbergen  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  to  seek 
refuse  along  the  great  icy  bank  that  bounds  the  sea  of  Green- 
land on  the  north  west.  The  fishermen  followed  them  there  as 
soon  as  they  left  the  waters  of  Spitzbergen.  From  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  whale  fishery  has  been  most  active 
about  the  78th  or  81st  degree  of  north  latitude,  or  in  Davis* 
Straits,  about  the  isle  of  Disco;  but  these  waters  in  turn  have 
been  depopulated,  and  for  three  or  four  years  past,  the  English 
whalers  have  almost  entirely  abandoned  those  places,  to  advance 
in  the  midst  of  the  ice,  in  Baffin s  Bay,  to  Lancaster  Sound  and 
Melville  Bay. 

But  the  voyages  of  whalers  are  not  confined  to  the  northern 
seas.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  American 
whaiers  of  Massachusetts  began  to  look  towards  the  south  and 
visited  the  waters  of  Cape  de  Verd,  the  south  western  coast  ot' 
Africa,  along  the  coasts  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay  to  the  Falkland 
islands.  From  that  time,  the  Knglish  have  also  carried  on  a 
fishery  to  the  south,  and  now  the  whale  ships  of  both  nations 
plough  not  only  the  southern  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  but  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean:  during  the  season,  they  cross 
to  the  waters  of  Japan,  then  descend  towards  the  Sandwich, 
Marquisas,  and  Galapagos  islands,  and  if  their  cargo  is  not  com- 
plete, they  touch  upon  the  coasts  of  Chile  and  Peru,  and  return 
by  Cape  Horn ;  but,  if  they  wish  to  continue  their  operations, 
they  cross  the  southern  hemisphere  in  the  summer  to  New  Zealand, 
to  return  towards  the  north  to  visit  the  seas  of  Japan,  or  the  coast 
of  California.  In  this  way,  they  sometimes  keep  at  sea  for  eight 
months  together,  exposed  to  the  greatest  fatigue  and  privations 
of  all  kinds ;  but  in  general,  the  dangers  are  less  in  this  vast  ocean 
than  in  the  polar  seas,  where  the  stoutest  vessels  are  sometimes 
crushed  by  the  ice,  and  where  shipwreck  is  unfortunately  verv 
frequent. 

The  northern  fishery  is  for  the  common  whale,  while  that  o! 
the  south  is  chiefly  for  the  Cachalot,  (  Pkyseter  Macrocepkalus)  or 
Sperm  whale. 

The  mode  of  attacking  both  these  immense  cetacea,  is  the 
»ame.  As  soon  as  the  sailor,  placed  in  a  lookout  at  the  mast 


134 WHALE  FISHING. 

head,  discovers  a  whale,  the  fishermen  take  to  their  boats,  and 
with  muffled  oars  approach  him  in  silence.  One  of  them  stands 
erect  in  the  bows,  holding  a  harpoon,  a  species  of  javelin,  the 
deeply  barbed  head  of  which  is  attached  to  a  strong  cord,  six  or 
seven  hundred  feet  in  length.  The  harpooner  of  the  first  boat  that 
arrives  within  reach  of  the  whale,  throws  his  weapon  so  as  to 
cause  it  to  penetrate  deeply  and  remain  firmly  in  the  body  of  the 
animal,  who,  feeling  the  wound,  sometimes  turns  violently,  and 
exerts  his  powerful  tail  with  so  much  force  as  to  shatter  the  boat 
or  hurl  it  into  the  air  Generally,  however,  the  whale  dives  im- 
mediately, dragging  after  him  the  cord  attached  to  the  iron  that 
has  been  planted  in  his  flesh.  This  is  the  critical  moment  for  the 
fishermen.  If  the  cord  does  not  run  out  with  sufficient  rapidity, 
or  gets  hitched,  the  whale  sinks  the  boat  and  all  the  crew,  and 
sometimes  it  has  happened  that  sailors,  by  being  caught  in  a 
loop  of  the  swiftly  running  cord,  have  been  almost  cut  in  two 
and  thrown  into  the  sea  never  to  be  seen  again  on  its  surface. 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  animal  flies  is  such  that  the  cord, 
from  rubbing  against  the  side  of  the  boat,  produces  dense  smoke, 
and  would  take  fire  were  it  not  kept  constantly  wet.  When  the 
first  line  has  almost  run  out,  the  fisherman  attach  a  second,  then 
a  third,  and  so  on  till  they  have  in  use  all  they  have  on  board, 
and  all  that  the  other  boats  can  supply.  The  length  of  line  they 
let  out  in  this  way,  sometimes  exceeds  ten  thousand  feet:  never- 
theless, it  is  not  always  enough,  and  then  they  are  obliged  to  cut 
loose  and  abandon  all  this  mass  of  cordage  as  well  as  their  har- 
poon, while  the  whale  prolongs  his  flight  without  returning  to 
the  surface.  Sometimes  the  animal  remains  under  water  more 
than  half  an  hour;  but  the  necessity  of  breathing  forces  him 
to  come  to  the  surface,  and  the  fishermen  who  are  dispersed  about, 
to  be  more  within  striking  distance,  endeavour  to  plant  a  second 
harpoon  in  his  body  or  pierce  it  with  lances.  When  the  whale 
thus  rises,  he  is  ordinarily  in  a  state  of  extreme  exhaustion,  and, 
in  proportion  as  his  blood  flows,  he  becomes  more  enfeebled; 
often  when  death  is  near,  he  yet  makes  a  last  and  terrible  effort, 
raises  his  tail  above  the  water,  and  agitates  it  with  a  convulsive 
movement  which  can  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles. 
Finally,  succumbing  altogether?  he  turns  upon  his  side  and  ex- 
pires. The  fishermen  hasten  to  pierce  his  tail  and  tie  to  it  ropes 
by  means  of  which  they  secure  the  immense  carcass  to  the  side 
of  their  ship ;  then,  armed  with  large  knives  and  a  sharp  instru- 
ment in  the  form  of  a  spade,  they  get  upon  iv  and  cut  off  tho 
Diu&ber  in  slices  which  is  after  wards  tried  out. 


WHALE  FISFTTNG.  135 


A  single  whale  sometimes  yields  as  much  as  a  hundred  to  a 
hundred  and  sixty  barrels  of  oil,  but  as  a  greater  number  of 
small,  than  of  large  whales  are  taken,  so  large  a  quantity  is  not 
obtained  from  them  all.  Scoresby  informs  us  that  498  whales, 
taken  in  twenty-eight  successive  voyages  in  the  seas  of  Green- 
land, yielded  4,246  tons  of  oil,  making  an  average  of  about  nine 
tons  to  each  whale.* 

The  Cachalots,  as  we  have  said  before,  furnish  much  less  oil, 
and  those  that  are  taken  within  the  tropics  are  much  leaner  than 
those  of  cold  seas  A  male  Cachalot,  seventy  feet  in  length, 
yields  about  fourteen  tons  of  oil  and  spermaceti,  but  six  females 
yield  scarcely  as  much. 

The  northern  fishery  often  occupies  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  English  ships,  and  the  southern  fifty  or  sixty.  In  1831 
there  were  despatched  for  Davis'  straits  and  Baffins  Bay,  seventy 
five  ships,  which  captured  330  whales,  and  returned  with  4,100 
tons  of  oil  and  4000  quintals^  of  whalebone.  At  the  same  time, 
the  English  fitted  out  twelve  whalers  for  the  Greenland  seas, 
which  took  86  whales,  4,100  seals,  and  returned  with  700  tons 
of  oil  and  600  quintals  of  whalebone.  The  product  of  the  whole 
English  whale  fishery,  for  the  preceeding  year,  was  valued  at  about 
a  half  a  million  of  dollars. 

The  number  of  whalers  belonging  to  France  does  not  exceed 
twenty.  In  1837  the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  United 
States  engaged  in  the  whale  fishery  was  580 — and  the  oil  brought 
home  that  year  is  set  down  at  181,724  barrels  of  sperm  oil,  and 
219,138  barrels  of  common  whale  oil. 

This  concludes  all  we  have  to  say  at  present,  about  mammiferous 
animals ;  we  next  preceed  to  the  consideration  of  birds,  which 
form  the  second  CLASS  of  the  BRANCH  of  VERTEBRATA. 


END    OF    THE    SECOND    BOOK    OF    NATURAL    HISTORY. 


•  A  ton  of  oil  contains   252  English  gallons  or  eight  barrels  of  31$  gallons. 
f  A  quintal  is  one  hundred  pounds. 

12* 


nait 


Fig.    I.  to  3. — Order  of  Bimana. 

Fin.   't.  to  12. — Order  of .  Quadrnmana. 


"\ 

Or  J 

LPRNlVw/ 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    I. 

ORDER    OF   BIMANA. 

Fig.    1.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Caucasian  race. 
Fig.    2.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Mongolian  race. 
Fig.    3.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Ethiopian  race. 
(Frontispiece.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  American  race.) 

ORDER  OF    QUADRUMANA. 

FAMILY    OP    MONKEYS. 
Fig.    4.  Head  of  a  young  Ourang-Outang. 
Fig.    5.  A  Chimpanzee. 
Fig.    6.  The  Semnopithecus  entellus. 
Fig.    7.  The  Cynoccphalus,  or  dog-headed  monkey. 
Fig.    8.  The  black  Ateles— a  monkey  belonging  to  the  division  of  Sajotn 
Fig.    9.  The  Alouatte,  or  howling  monkey ;  a  female  carrying  a  young 
one  on  her  back. 

FAMILY    OF    OUIST1TIS. 

Fig.  10.  The  Ouistitis. 

FAMILY    OF   MAKIS. 

Fig.  12.  Hind  paw  of  a  Maki,  to  show  the  peculiar  form  of  the  nail  M 
the  index  finger. 

Fig.  11.  The  red  makL  . 

W 


Plate  2. 


Order  of  Carnaria. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    2. 
OKDKR  OF  CARNARIA. 

FAMILY    OF    CHEIROPTERA. 

Fi<r.     1.   A  but  (Oreillard)  with  ill",  win.s  (Xtended. 

Ftj.     2.  A  b.t  with  the  wings  fo'cled  as  when  vvalking. 

Fig.  3.  The  b  >nes  of  ;he  wing  of  a  bit, —  /,  the  Lumerus. — 5,  the  fore 
arm. — c.  the  thumb. — </,  the  fingers. 

Fig.     4.   Head  of  the  Vampire. 

Fig.  6.  Teeth  of  a  frugivorous  bat,  vie.vcd  from  above  (one  half  of  the 
upper  jaw  only  is  n  presented). 

Fig.     5.  Teeth  of  an  insectivorous  bat. 

Fig.     7.  The  Galeopithecus,  with  its  young  one. 

FAMILY    OF    INSECT1VORA. 
Fig.     9.  The  common  >hrew. 
Fig.  10.  The  common  mole. 

Fig.  11.  Bo  es  of  the  f>re-ar,n  and  hand  of  the  mo'e. — a,  the  fore-arm.-— 
6,  the  hand. 

Fig.     8.  Teeth  of  an  insectivorous  animal. — /n,  the  molar  teeth. 

FAMILY    OF    CARNIVORA. 

Fig.  12.  Teeth  of  a  carnivorous  animal  (the  Glutt  >n.) — i,  incisor*— f 
e&nines.— /"m,  filse  molars. — c«,  carniv.  rous  tooth. — t,  tuberculous  tooth. 

TRIBB    OF    PLANTIGRADES. 

Fig.  14.  Fore  paw  of  a  bear,  seen  Irom  below. 
Fig.  13.  White  beir  of  the  Icy  ocean. 

Fig.  15.  The  Glutton. 

' 

TRIBE    OF    DIGITIGRADES. 

Fig.  16.  The  common  polecat 
Fig.  17.  The  common  civet 
14 


Mate  3. 


Fig.  1  to  8.     Order  Carnvria. 
Fig.  9  to  12.     Order  Marsuvialia. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    3. 

tig.  1.  The  Mangouste  of  Egypt,  or  Ichneumon  of  the  ancients. 

F,g.  3.  The  Hyena. 

Fig.  5.  The  s-kull  of  a  I. ion. 

Fig.  4.  The  Royal  Tiger. 

Fig.  2.  Head  of  the  Wolf. 

Fig.  (i.  Paw  of  a  Digitigrade. — o,  the  humerus — 6,  the  fore-arm.— 
*,  the  carpus. — d,  the  metacarpus. — e,  the  phalanges  and  toes. 

TRIBE    OF    AMPHIBIA. 

Fig.    7.  The  common  Seal. 
Fig.    8.  Head  of  a  Morse. 

ORDER    OF    MARSUPIALIA. 

Fig.  9.  The  Opossum  represented  erect,  with  its  y«,ung  ones  entering 
the  mammary  pouch. 

Fig.  11.  The  Kangaroo. 

Fig.  10.  Teeth  of  the  Opossum. — o,  the  incisors. — 6,  tl.e  canines.— e  the 
molars. 

J^ .  12.  Teeth  of  the  giant  Kangaroo. 


W2 


Fig.  1  to  5.     Order  of  Edentata. 
Fig.  6  to  12.     Order  of  Rodentia. 


EXPLANATION     OF    PLATE    4 

ORDER    OF    EDENTATA. 

Fig.  3.  Skull  of  the  AY  or  Sloth. 

Fig.  1.  The  AY,  or  Sloth. 

Fig.  2.  The  Armadillo. 

Fig.  4.  The  Pangolin,  or  Manis. 

Fig.  5.  The  Ornithorynclius. 

ORDER    OF    KODENTIA. 

Fig.  12    The  Beaver. 

Fig.  11.  The  Jerboa. 

Fig.  10.  The  Hamster. 

Fiy.    9.  The  Marmot. 

Fig.    8.  The  Flying  Squirrel 

Fig-.     6.  The  teeth  of  a  squirrel. 

Fig.    7.  Front  view  of  the  lower  incisors  of  a  Squirrel 

14* 


I'late  5. 


Fifj.   1.  to  4. — Order  of  Pachydermata. 
Piy.   5.  to   13. —  Order  of   Ruiniuantia. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    i 
ORDER   OF    PACHYDERMATA. 

Fig.     I.  Head  of  the  Asiatic  Elephant. 

Fig.     2.  Head  of  the  African  Elephant. 

Fig.     3.  The  Rhinoceros. 

Fig.    4.  The  Hyppopotamu'. 

Fig.     5.  The  wild  Lama  or  Guanaco. 

Fig.     6    Head  of  the  Giraffe. 

Fig.     1.  The  common  Stag. 

Fig      8.  Head  of  the  female  Rein-deer. 

Fi*.     9.   Hrad  of  the  Chamo's. 

F»^.  10.  He^d  of  the  JEzagre. 

Fig.  11.  Head  of  (he  Argali,  or  wild  sheep  of  A»i» 

Fig.  12.  Head  of  the  Mouflon. 

Ft£.  13.  The  Yack. 


Plate   6. 


Fig.    1   to  5.     Order  of  Rummatia   continued. 
Fig.   6  to  9.    Order  of  Cetacea. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    6. 

F/£.     1.  Head  of  the  Buffalo. 

Fig.    2.  Head  i>f  the  Musk  Ox  of  America. 

Fig.     3.  Skull  of  the  Ox. 

Fig.  4.  Stomach  of  a  ruminant  (sheep.) — o,  the  oesophagus. — pt  the 
paunch. — b,  the  bonnet  or  reticulurn.— /,  the  manyplies  or  omassum, — ca, 
the  caill  He  or  rennet  b  g. d,  the  intestine. 

7'Vg-.  5.  The  same  op  ned  to  show  how  the  (Esophagus  terminates  in  the 
bonnet  and  munyplies.  (The  same  letters  indicate  the  same  parts.) 

ORDER    OF   CETACEA. 

Fig.     6.  The  prrpois;. — a,  the  \entor  spiracle. 
Fig.     7.  The  Whale. 

Fig.  8.  Skull  of  a  Wh.lc.— /,  the  whalebone. — m,  the  upper  jaw— « 
Uie  cranium.— mf,  the  lower  jaw.  " 

Fig.    9.  The  Cachalot,  or  Spermaceti  whale. 


BOOK  III. 


VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

CLASS  II. —AYES. 

ORNITHOLOGY:   THK  NATURAL  HISTORY  or  BIRDS, 


Plate  8. 


Anatomy. — Beaks. 


ORNITHOLOGY: 

THE   NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    BIRDS. 

LESSON    I. 

CLASS  OP  BIRDS. — Zoological  Characters  of  Birds. —  Peculiari- 
ties of  their  Organization. 

GENERAL    NOTIONS    ABOUT    BIRDS* 
Of  the  Organization  of  Birds. 

1.  THE  CLASS  OF  BIRDS  comprises  all  vertebrate  animals  that 
are  the  best  organized  for  flying.     They  are  readily  distinguished 
by  the  general  form  of  the  body,  and  by  the  feathers  with  which 
they  are  covered  ;  but  the  most  important  characters  possessed 
by  them,  consist  in  the  structure  of  their  internal  organs,  and  the 
manner  in  which  their  various  functions  are  performed. 

2.  In  fact,  they  are  oviparous  vertebrata,  in  which  the  circula- 
tion is  double  and  complete  ;  the  heart  has  four  cavities;  the  blood 
is  warm,  and  the  respiration  is  aerial,  and  double. 

3.  To  distinguish  them  from  other  vertebrate   animals,  it   is 
only  necessary  to  say.  they  have  a  complete  circulation    and    a 
double  aerial  respiration  ;  or  simply  to  remember  that  they  are 
the  only  oviparous  vertebra  fa  having  warm  blood. 

4.  The  general  form  of  birds  varies  very  little,  and  is  in  rela- 
tion to  the  mode  of  locomotion  which  is  peculiar  to  them.     They 
rarely  attain  a  very  large  size,  and  their  abdominal  or  posterior 
extremities  are  especially  designed  for  standing  and  walking, 

1.  What  animals  compose  the  class  of  birds?      By   what  characters   are 
birds  readily  distinguished  from  other  animals  ?     In  what  important  particu- 
lars do  birds  differ  from  otln  r  animals? 

2.  What  are  birds?     What  is  the  character  of  the  circulation    in  birds? 
How  many  cavitie*  has  the  heart  ?     Are  birds  cold  blooded  animals  ?     What 
is  the  character  of  the  respiration  in  birds? 

3.  How  are  birds  distinguished  from  other  veitebrate  animals  ? 

4.  What  is  remarked  of  ihe  general  form  of  birds?     To    what  purposes 
are  the  lower  extremities  of  birds  applied  ?     What    are    the    functions    per- 
formed  by  their  superior,  or  thoracic  extremities?    What  are  these  extremi. 
tie*  railed  ? 


12  SKELETON  OF  BIRD*. 


while  the  thoracic  or  anterior  extremities  never  serve  them  for 
walking,  nor  for  prehension,  nor  for  touch;  but  they  form  a  sort 
of  broad  oars,  named  wings,  which,  by  striking  the  air,  sustain 
and  cause  the  animal  to  move  in  it. 

5.  The    SKELETON,   (Plate.  1.  Jiq.   1.)    which  determines   the 
general  form  of  the  body,  and  which  is,  at  the  same  time,  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  apparatus  of  motion,  is  com- 
posed of  nearly  the  same  bones  as  that  of  the  mammalia ;  but 
their  form  and  disposition  vary. 

6.  The  head  is  small,  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  are   soldered 
together  at  an  early  period  of  life,  and  the  face  is  formed  almost 
entirely  by  the  jaws  which  are  very  much  elongated  and  consti- 
tute a  beak.     The  superior  mandible  or  jaw  is  articulated  with  the 
cranium,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  some  mobility,  and  the 
lower  mandible,  in  place  of  being  articulated  directly  with  the 
cranium,  as  is  the  case  in  mammalia,  is  suspended  from  a  moveable 
bone,  called  the  st^vine  or  tympanic  h<  wr,  which  is  articulated  with 
the  petrous  bone;  [this  mode  of  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  is 
met  with  also   in  other  oviparous  vertebrate  animals,  that  is,  in 
fishes  and  reptiles  ]     These  mandibles  are  composed  of  many 
pieces,   and  are  enveloped  in  a  horny  substance  which  takes  the 
place  of  teeth. 

7.  The  articulation  of  the  head  with  the  vertebral   column  fs 
much   more  moveable   than  it  is  in  mammals,  and  is  effected 
through  the  means  of  a  single  rounded  eminence,    (called  con- 
dyle,)  while  in  the  mammalia  there  are  always  two  of  these 
condyles.     This  arrangement  enables  the  bird  to  direct  his  face 
entirely  and  completely  backwards. 

8.  The  neck  of  birds  is  also  very  moveable ;  and  as  these  ani- 
mals generally  take  their  food  from  the  ground  with  their  beak, 
the  length  of  this  part  of  their  body  is  necessarily  in  proportion 
to  the  height  at  which  they  are  placed  on  their  legs.     This  is  in- 

5.  In  what  respect  does  the  skeleton  of  birds  differ  from  that  of  mammals? 

6.  What  is  remarked  of  the  head  of  birds  ?    What  forms  the  face  ?    How 
does  the  articulation  of  the  upper  jaw  with  the  cranium  differ  in  hirds,  from 
the  same  articulation  in  the  mammalia  ?     What    is   the    peculiarity    of  the 
trticulation  of  the  lower  jaw  in  birds?     With  what  bone  does   the  square 
bone  articulate  ?     Is  this  mode  of  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  peculiar   to 
birds  ?     How  are  t;  ese  mandibles  composed  ? 

7.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  articulation  of  the  head  (of  birds)  with 
the  vertebral  column  ?     What  is  the  advantage  resulting  from  this  anange- 
ment? 

8.  Upon  what  circumstances  does  the  length  of  the  neck  seem  to  depend  ? 
What  is  the   most  common    number  of  cervical  vertebrae  in  birds  ?     How 
many  cervical  vertebrae  has  the  Swan  ?     How  many  has  the  Sparrow  ?  Are 
the  bcnes  of  the  neck  very  moveable  on  each  other  ? 


SKELETON  OF  THE  TRUNK.  13 


deed  almost,  always  observed.  The  number  of  cervical  verte- 
bras  varies  much ;  most  generally  there  are  twelve  or  fifteen  ; 
but  sometimes  we  find  a  much  larger  number,  and  at  others,  not 
so  many;  the  Swan  has  twenty-three,  and  the  Sparrow  only 
nine  These  bones  are  always  very  rnoveable  on  each  other,  and 
from  the  disposition  of  their  articular  surfaces,  the  neck  may  be 
bent  like  the  letter  S,  and,  consequently,  be  elongated  or  shortened 
accordingly  as  the  curves  are  diminished  or  increased. 

9  The  bony  frame  of  the  trunk  is  very  solid ;  in  birds  that 
fly,  (and  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few,  they  all  possess  this 
faculty,)  the  vertebra?  of  the  back,  which  necessarily  support  the 
ribs,  and  consequently  afford  a  point  of  support  for  the  wings, 
are  entirely  immoveable  and  are  frequently  anchylosed,  that  is, 
soldered  together;  the  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebra?  are  all  united 
into  one  bone,  having  the  same  uses  as  the  sacrum  in  the  mam- 
malia :  finally,  the  coccygian  vertebrae  are  small  and  moveable  ; 
the  last  one,  which  sustains  the  large  tail  feathers,  is  ordinarily 
larger  than  the  others  and  marked  by  a  projecting  spine  or  crest. 

10.  The  ribs  of  birds  also  possess  some  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture which  tend  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  thorax;  but   the 
most  remarkable  part  of  the  bony  frame  of  this  division   of  the 
body  is  the  sternum,  which,  affording   points  of  origin  for   the 
chief  muscles  of  flight,  becomes  very  much  developed,  and  con- 
stitues  a  broad  shield  or   breast-plate,  which  extends  far   back 
over  the  abdomen,  and  almost  always  presents  a  sort   of  very 
prominent  and  longitudinal  crest  or  keel,  called  brisket.  ( Vlate 
l,^f<y.  2.)  It  is  remarked  that  this  shield  is  most  developed   and 
most  completely  ossified  in  those  birds  that  fly  best. 

1 1.  The  bones  of  the  shoulders  are  disposed  in  a  manner  most 
favourable  for  the  power  of  the  wings  ;  they  are  three  in  number, 
namely;    a   Scapula,  a  Clavicle,   and    a  Coracoid  R<me.     The 
Scapula  is  much  elongated  ;  the  Clavicle  is  anchylosed  with  that 
of  the  opposite  side,  so  as  to  form  a  bone  resembling   in  shape, 
the  letter  V,  the  point  of  which  rests  against  the  Sternum  ;  the 
Coracoid   bone,  or  posterior  clavicle,  is  a  sort  of  second  Clavicle, 
which,  in  the  mammalia,  is  rudimentary  and  confounded   with 
the  Scapula,  but  here  becomes  very  strong,  oonsituting  a  buttress 
placed  between  the  articulation  of  the  shoulder  and  the  sternum. 

9.  What  is  remarked  of  the  skeleton  of  the  trunk?     Are  the  verUbrae  of 
the  spinal  column  moveable  on  each  oth  r? 

10.  What  is  remarkable  of  the  sternum  of  birds  ?     What  is  the  brisket? 
What  renders  it  necessary  that  the  sternum  should  be  large  ? 

11.  Ho\v  many  bones  belong  to  the  shoulder?     What   are    they?     What 
is  the  form   and   situation  of  the   clavicle?     What   is  the  coracoid   bone? 
What  is  its  situation  ?     What    is   the    advantage    derived    fiom  the  Jouble 
clavicles  in  birds  ? 

X  « 


14 BONES  OF  THE  EXTREMITIES. 

These  double  clavicles  maintain  the  shoulders  apart  in  spite  of 
the  violent  force  applied  in  a  contrary  direction  by  the  exercise 
of  the  wings,  which  is  greater  the  stronger  the  flight. 

12.  The  wing  of  the  bird  corresponds  to  the  anterior  extremity 
of  mammals,   and    is   also  composed    of  three  principal    parts, 
namely :  the  arm,  the  fore-arm,  and  the  hand.     The  arm   con- 
sists  of  a  humerus   which  is  not  particularly  remarkable;  the 
fore-arrn  which  consists  of  a  radius  and  an  ulna,  corresponds  in 
its  length    with  the  strength  of  the  flight  of  the  bird ;.  and  the 
hand  is  reduced  to  a  sort  of  stump,  which  serves  for  the  inser- 
tion of  the  large  feathers  of  the  wing :  there  is   distinguished   a 
range  of  carpnl  bones,  a  bone  in  the  form  of  a  style  which    rep- 
resents the  thumb,  a  single   metacarpal   bone   sustains  a  finger 
with  two  phalanges,  and  the  vestiges  of  a  third  finger  which  is 
represented  by  a  small  styloid  bone. 

13.  The  lower  extremities   of  birds  are   designed  solely  for 
support  and  for  walking ;  sometimes  they  become  the  organs  of 
natation,  and  there  are  some  of  these  animals  that  employ  them 
for  the  prehension  of  aliment.     The  bones  of  the  haunches   are 
strongly  developed;  they  are  attached  to  the  neighbouring  part 
of  the  vertebral  column,  so  as  to  form  with  it  a  single  piece,  and 
the  bony  belt  which  results  from  this  assemblage,  and    which  is 
called  the  pelvis,  remains  almost  always   incomplete   in  front. 
The  femur  is  short  and  directed  forward ;  the  tibia  is  strong,  and  the 
fibula  is  reduced  to  a  mere  bony  style    The  tarsus  and  metatarsus 
are  represented  by  a  single  bone,  the  length  of  which  determines 
the  height  of  the  bird  on  its  legs      The  number  of  toes  varies 
from  four  to  two ;  almost  always  there  are   three  directed   for- 
ward and  one  backwards.     The  number  of  phalanges  ordinarily 
increases  from  two  to  five,  from  the  hind  toe  or  thumb,  to   the 
fourth  toe.     We  therefore  count  two  phalanges  for  the  thumb  or 
great  toe,  three  for  the  internal  toe,  four  for  the   middle  toe,  and 
five  for  the  external. 

14.  In  swimming  birds  the  toes  are  palmate,  that  is,  united  by 
membranes  sufficiently  broad  to  allow  them  to  separate  from  each 
other,  and  when  spread,  to  form  a  sort  of  paddle.     In  those  that 

12.  How  does  the  wing  of  a  bird  differ  from  the  anterior  extremity  of  a 
mammal  ?     How  does  the  hand  resemble  that  of  a  mammal  ? 

13.  To  what  purposes  are  the  lower  extremities  applied  '     How  does  the 
pelvis   of  birds   differ    from    that   of  mamrnaN?     Is  the  fibula  complete  in 
biids  ?     How  are  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus  formed  ?     What  is  the  number 
of  toes?     How  many  phalanges  have  the  toes? 

14.  Hov*  are  the  feet  of  swimming  birds  characterised  ?  What  u  remark- 
able in  the  feet  of  climbing  birds  ?     How  are  the  feet  of  wading  birds    lis- 
ting uished  ?     How  is  it  that  birds  can  sleep  while  standing  on  the  limb*  vf 
trees  without  falling  ? 


FEATHERS. 


climb  best,  two  toes  are  directed  forward  and  two  backwards, 
and  in  those  that  wade  in  rivers,  marshes,  &c.,  in  search  of  fishes 
or  worms,  the  tarsi  are  so  long  that  the  animal  seems  to  be 
mounted  on  suits.  In  all  these  anima's  there  is  a  peculiar  mech- 
anism, by  means  of  which,  when  they  are  perched  upon  a  branch, 
the  weight  of  the  body  tends  to  flex  their  toes,  and  consequently 
to  make  them  closely  embrace  the  object  in  their  grasp ;  an 
arrangement  which  permits  them  to  repose  in  the  standing  posi- 
tion without  any  risk  of  filling  while  asleep. 

15.  The  feathers  with  which  the  body  of  birds  is  covered, 
serve  to  protect  them  against  cold  and  damp;  and  they  are  also 
powerful  means  of  locomotion.  They  are  composed  of  a  horny 
stalk,  hollow  at  the  base,  and  armed  with  beards,  which  them- 
selves, have  stil!  smaller  beards  upon  them:  th^y  are  formed  by 
secreting  organs  which  are  analogous  in  their  nature  to  those 
which  produce  the  hairs  in  mammalia.  [The  secreting  organ 
destined  to  form  a  feather  is  called  a  capsule,  and  often  acquires 
considerable  length.  According  to  the  observations  of  M.  F. 
Cuvier,  it  would  appear  that  the  capsule  grows  during  the  whole 
period  occupied  in  the  developement  of  the  feather,  and  that  in 
proportion  as  its  base  elongates,  its  extremity  dies  and  becomes 
dry,  the  moment  it  has  formed  the  corresponding  portion  of  this 
appendix.  Each  one  of  these  little  apparatuses  is  composed  of 
a  cylindrical  sheath,  lined  internally  by  two  coats  or  tunics,  united 
by  oblique  partitions,  and  a  central  bulb.  The  substance  of  the 
feather  is  deposited  on  the  bulb,  and  to  form  the  beards,  it  is 
moulded  in  some  way,  in  the  spaces  that  the  little  partitions,  we 
have  just  mentioned,  leave  between  them  ;  in  the  portion  corres- 
ponding to  the  stalk,  the  bulb  is  in  relation  with  the  internal  surface 
of  the  stalk,  and  after  having  there  deposited  a  spongy  substance 
it  dries  and  perishes:  but  at  the  part  where  the  stalk  or  trunk  of 
the  feather  is  tubular,  the  lamina  of  horny  matter  which  this  secre- 
ting organ  deposites,  is  shaped  or  moulded  around  itself,  and  is 
completely  enveloped  in  it;  nevertheless,  the  bulb,  after  it  has 
discharged  its  functions,  dries,  and  forms,  in  perishing,  a  series  of 
membranous  cones,  lodged  one  in  the  other  like  a  nest  of  boxes, 
which  fill  the  interior  of  the  tube,  and  are  called  Ike  soul  of  the 
Jt'Cttlier,  i>r  tjuilf. 

lo".  The  new  feather  is  at  first  enclosed  in  the  sheath  of  its 
capsule  which  frequently  projects  several  inches  beyond  the  skin, 
and  is  gradually  destroyed  ;  the  feather  then  appears  naked,  and 
its  beards  display  themselves  laterally;  the  extremity  of  its 

15.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  feathers  f     How  are  they  formed  ? 

16.  Do  birds  shed  their  feathers? 

2 


16  FEATHERS. 


tube  remains  bedded  in  the  skin,  bat  is  generally  detached  with- 
out difficulty,  and  at  a  certain  period  falls  to  give  place  to  a  new- 
feather.  This  renewing  of  the  feathers,  which  is  called  moulting, 
occurs,  in  general,  every  year  after  the  season  of  laying,  and 
sometimes  it  takes  place  twice  in  the  year,  in  the  spring  and  the 
autumn  ;  it  happens  earlier  in  the  old  than  in  the  young,  and  is 
a  period  of  indisposition  during  which  the  bird  usually  loses  its 
voice. 

17.  The  form  of  these  tegumentary  appendages  varies  much ; 
some  are  destitute  of  beards  and  resemble  the  spines  of  the  por- 
cupine ;    others  have  stiff  beards  which  are  armed  with  smaller 
beards  which  hook  into  each  other,  so  as  to  form  a  great  tissue  or 
coat,  which  the  air  does  not  penetrate ;  others  again  have  the 
beards  and  the  smaller  beards  (barbs  and  barbules)long,  flexible, 
and  not  hooked  into  each  other,  which  renders  them  extremely 
soft  and  light ;  and  there  are  some  which  resemble  simple  down. 
Their  colours  are  infinitely  varied  and  often  surpass  the  most 
beautiful  flowers  or  the  most  brilliant  gems  in  beauty  and  splen- 
dour. Generally,  the  plumage  of  the  female  is  not  so  rich  as  that 
of  the  male,  and  it  is  rare  for  the  young  bird  to  be  clothed  in  the 
same  colours  that  it  will  wear  all  its  life ;  they  often  change  two 
or  three  years  afterwards,  and  sometimes  the  adult  wears    a 
plumage  in  the  spring,  altogether  different  from  that  of  winter.] 

18.  The  large  stiff  feathers  that  grow  on  the  anterior  extremi- 
ties of  birds,  which  are  called  wing  feathers,  or  pinion   feathers, 
expand  these  organs  very  considerably  without  increasing  then: 
weight,  and  convert  them  into  powerful  oars  destined  to  cleave  the 
air,  and  strike  against  it  with  so  much  force  and  frequency,  that 
the  shock  thus  produced  impels  the  body  of  the  animal  in  a  con- 
trary direction.     The  ability  of  the  bird  to  sustain  itself  in  the 
air,  and  move  with  rapidity,  is  in  proportion  to  the  expanse  of  the 
wings.     The  feathers  which  contribute  most  to  the   extent  of 
the  wings,  and  that  are  most  useful  in  flight,  are  those  which  are 
attached  to  the  hand,  and,  consequently,  most  distant   from   the 
body  ;  they  are  always  ten  in  number,  and   are  called   primary 
renriyes;  the  feathers  of  the  fore-arm  are  called  secondary  remiges; 
the  scaputaiy,  which  are  the  least  in  strength,  are  attached  to  the 
humerus;  the bus'ard  feathers  are  those  that  grow  from  the  thumb, 
an  i  the  coverts,  those  feathers  which  cover  the  base  of  the  remiges. 

17.  Whelhcr  does  the  male  or  female  bird  possess  the  most  brilliant  colours? 
Are  the  colours  of  all  birds  the  same  throughout  the  year  ? 

18.  What  are  the  primary  remiges?     What  is  their  number?    What  are 
the  secondary  remiges?     What   are   the   scapulary  feathers?     What  are 
bastard  feathers  or  quills? 


j LOCOMOTTON. 17 

[  Every  time  a  bird  wishes  to  strike  the  air,  he  first  raises  the 
humerus  with  the  wing  still  folded;  next  he  expands  the  wing 
extending  the  fore-arm  and  hand,  arid  then  suddenly  depresses  it ; 
the  air  which  resists  this  movement  now  affords  him  a  point  of 
support,  upon  which  he  rises :  he  launches  himself  forward  like 
a  projectile,  and  the  moment  an  impulse  is  given  to  his  body,  he 
folds  the  wing  to  diminish  as  much  as  possible  the  new  resistance 
which  the  ambient  air  opposes  to  his  course.  This  resistance 
and  the  attraction  of  gravitation,  (which  tends  to  cause  all  bodies 
to  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth,)  gradually  diminish  the 
swiftness  the  bird  has  acquired  by  this  blow  or  stroke  upon  the 
air,  and  if  he  made  no  new  movement,  he  must  soon  descend, 
but  if,  before  losing  the  swiftness  acquired  by  the  first  blow  ot 
the  wing,  he  gives  a  second,  he  will  add  a  new  impulse  to  that 
which  he  had  already,  and  gain  an  accelerated  movement. 
Such  is,  in  fact,  the  mechanism  of  flight. 

While  the  bird  is  thus  suspended  in  the  air,  the  whole  weight 
of  his  body  is  supported  by  his  wings,  and  to  enable  him  to 
preserve  his  equilibrium  in  this  position,  the  centre  of  gravity 
must  be  placed  very  nearly  beneath  the  shoulders  and  as  low  as 
possible;  it  is  for  this  reason  that,  while  flying,  he  generally 
carries  his  head  in  advance  by  stretching  out  the  neck,  and  that  the 
body,  instead  of  being  elongated,  like  that  of  mammals,  is  always 
gathered  up  and  oval  In  this  necessity  for  lowering,  as  much  as 
possible,  this  centre  of  gravity,  we  also  find  the  reason  for  a 
peculiarity  of  structure,  which  at  first  sight  appears  singular; 
the  principal  elevating  muscles  of  the  wings,  instead  of  being 
placed  upon  the  back,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case  in  other  animals, 
are  found  upon  the  chest  with  the  depressors,  and  they  produce 
an  effect  opposite  to  the  latter,  because  their  tendons  pass  over 
a  sort  of  pulley  before  reaching  the  humerus ;  this  arrangement 
is  injurious  to  their  action,  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  accumu- 
lating, at  the  most  depending  part  of  the  thorax,  all  the  most 
weighty  organs  of  the  body,  and,  consequently  of  lowering  thus 
for  the  centre  of  gravity. — (See,  Hist  Li  ok  .  /  Natural  History, 
I'utie  92.) 

It  is  evident  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  in  proportion  to 
the  mass  of  this  fluid,  struck  at  one  time  by  the  wings,  and  con- 
s^quently,  that  the  greater  the  surface  of  the  wings,  all  things  be- 
ing equal,  the  greater  will  be  the  swiftness  acquired  by  depressing 
these  oars ;  hence  it  follows,  that  birds  with  long  wings  are  not 
only  able  to  fly  with  greater  rapidity,  than  birds  with  short  wings, 
but  they  are  also  able  to  support  themselves  for  a  longer  time  w 
the  air,  because  they  are  not  obliged  to  repeat  the  movements  ot 


18  LOCOMOTION 


these  organs  so  frequently,  and  therefore  do  not  become  »o 
readily  fatigued:  and,  in  fact,  all  birds  remarkable  for  rapid 
and  long  sustained  flight  have  large  wings,  while  those  that  have 
short  or  moderate  wings,  compared  with  the  volume  of  their 
body,  fly  less  swiftly  and  require  rest  more  frequently. 

To  rise  vertically,  it  is  necessary  that  the  wings  of  the  bird 
should  be  entirely  horizontal,  but  this  is  not  ordinarily  the  case; 
in  general  they  are  inclined  from  front  to  rear  so  as  to  impart  to 
the  animal  an  obliquely  ascending  movement;  sometimes  even 
this  inclination  is  such,  that,  to  mount  nearly  vertically,  into  the 
atmosphere,  the  bird  is  obliged  to  fly  against  the  wind.  The 
length  of  the  remiges  influences  the  facility  with  which  he  can 
rise  in  a  calm  air ;  birds  that  have  the  anterior  remiges  longest, 
and  most  resisting  at  their  extremity,  fly  more  obliquely,  than 
those  in  which  the  wings  are  truncated  at  the  end.] 

,19.  The  feathers  of  the  tail  also  assist  in  flight,  but  in  a  dif- 
ferent way ;  the  bird  makes  use  ot  them  as  a  rudder  to  direct 
its  course.  The  number  of  the  feathers  which  perform  this 
office  is  ordinarily  twelve,  and  they  are  called  rectriccs,  and  the 
name  of  cooertu  of  the  tail,  is  given  to  those  feathers  which 
cover  their  base. 

[We  have  seen  that,  during  flight,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
bird  should  be  near  the  shoulders  ;  in  order  that  he  may  preserve 
his  balance  on  his  legs,  which  are  placed  near  the  posterior  part 
of  the  trunk,  these  organs  must  be  flexed  considerably  torward, 
and  the  toes  must  be  sufficiently  long,  to  be  in  advance  of 
the  point  where  the  vertical  line  should  fall  that  passe*  through 
the  centre  of  gravity,  or  the  centre  of  gravity  must  r>e  carried 
behind,  so  as  to  be  above  the  base  of  support.  (Se<>  hirst  book  of 
Natural  History,  l*aye  92.)  This  explains  the  utility  or  the  great 
flexion  of  the  thigh  and  the  obliquity  of  the  tarsus  on  the  leg ; 
when  the  foot  is  large  and  the  neck  can  be  bent  so  as  to  carry 
the  head  behind,  the  equilibrium  is  thus  establishea  without,  the 
body  being  thrown  much  out  of  the  horizontal  position ;  but 
when  the  neck  is  short  and  toes  of  moderate  length,  the  animal  is 
obliged,  while  standing  or  walking,  to  assume  an  almost  vertical 
position.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  more  easily  preserving  their 
equilibrium,  that  birds  generally  place  their  heads  under  their 
wing,  while  they  sleep,  perched  on  one  leg  In  most  of  these 
animals  this  position  is  rendered  singularly  commodious  by  a 
peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  knee ;  in  man  and  most  ani- 
mals, the  extremities  bend  under  the  weight  of  the  body  the 

19.  How  do  the  feathers  of  the  tail  assist  in  flight?  What  are  the 
recirices  ?  What  is  their  nuaiber  ? 


THE  SENSES—  BRAIN—  VOICE. 19 

moment  their  extensor  muscles  cease  to  contract,  and  it  is  the 
continued  contraction  of  these  organs  that  renders  standing  so 
fatiguing ;  but  in  the  stork  and  other  birds  with  long  legs,  it  is 
otherwise;  the  lower  extremity  of  the  femur  has  a  hollow  or 
excavation  which,  during  the  extension  of  the  limb,  receives  a 
projection  of  the  tibia,  which  cannot  escape  from  it  without  a 
muscular  effort ;  the  leg  once  in  position,  it  remains  extended, 
without  the  animal  having  any  necessity  to  contract  his  muscles, 
and  without  his  experiencing  any  fatigue. 

20.  The  sense  of  touch  in  birds  is  necessarily  dull,  on  account 
of  the  nature  of  their    internments.     The   sense  of   taste   also 
appears  to  be  obtuse  in  most  of  these  animals :  and  in  fact,  their 
tongue  is  almost  always  hard  and  horny.     In  genera!,  the  same 
is  true  in  respect  to  the  sense  of  smell ;  sometimes,  however,  this 
sense  appears  to  be  very  delicate ;  for  we  observe  that  birds  of 
prey  direct  themselves  by  the  odour  alone  to  carrion,   placed  at 
too  great  a  distance  for  them  to  perceive  it,  notwithstanding  the 
great  perfection  of  their  sight. 

21.  Generally  this  1  ist  sense  is  more  developed  in  birds  than  in 
all  other  animals.     There  is  found  at  the  back  part  of  the  eye   a 
plaited  membrane,  called   t,vc;eii  or  m  arm  pin  m,  which  projects 
from  the  retina  towards  the  crystalline  lens,  and  seems  to  be  of 
a  nervous  nature  ;  it  is  also  remarked  that  the  anterior   face  of 
the    ball  of  the  eye  is  strengthened  by  a  circle  of  bony  pieces, 
lodged  in  the  thickness  of  the  sclerotica,  and  besides  the   two 
ordinary  eyelids,  there  is  always,  at  the  external  angle  of  the  eye, 
a  third,  named  memirantt  niciitau*.  (winking  membrane,)  which 
may  be  drawn  over  the  front  of  this  organ  like  a  curtain. 

22.  Birds  have   not,   like  most   mammals,  an  external  ear; 
nocturnal  birds  only,  have  a  large  external   concha  or  pavilion, 
out  it  is  not  projecting ;  and  the  opening  of  the  ear  is  generally 
concealed  by  feathers  with  fringed  beards. 

23.  The  brain  is  less  developed  in  birds  than   in   most  mam- 
mals,   and  differs  from   that  of  the   latter  in    some   important 
particulars,  which  we  cannot  enumerate  at  this  time, 

24.  Finally,  to  conclude   with  the    functions    of  relation,    we 
will  add,  that  in  birds  the  voice  is  chiefly  formed  in  the  inferior 
larynx,  which  is  situate  at  the  extremity  of  the  trachea,    where 
it  bifurcates  to  form  the  bronchia.  (Plate  2,/fy.  2.)     In  the  sing- 
ing birds  this   organ  is  very  complicated  in  its  structure ;  \ve 

20.  Why  is  the  sense  of  touch  dull  in  birds?     Why  :s  the  sense   of  taste 
usually  ohtuse  ?     Is  the  s<n-e  of  sntell  very  delicate? 

21.  In  what  particulars  do  the  eyes  of  birds  oiffer  from  tho  e  of  mamma's  ? 
?2.   How  docs  the  organ  of  hearing'  in  birds  differ  from  that  of  mammals? 

23.  How  does  the  brain  of  birds  differ  from  that  organ  in  othci  animals  ? 

24.  Whf  re  is  the  organ  of  voice  situated  in  birds? 

2* 


ORGANS  OF  DIGESTION. 


observe  elastic  membranes  stretched  in  its  interior  and  a  great 
number  of  muscles,  designed  to  move  the  solid  pieces  that  com- 
pose it;  but  in  those  birds  that  do  not  modulate  sounds,  its 
structure  is  much  more  simple. 

25.  The  organs  destined  to  perform  the  various  functions  of 
nutrition  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  in  the  mammalia. 

26  The  apparatus  of  digestion  in  the  class  of  birds  presents 
the  greatest  uniformity  of  structure:  the  most  remarkable  part 
of  it  is  the  existence  of  three  stomachs.  Teeth  are  never  found 
in  these  animals ;  their  aliments  which  are  taken  hold  of  by  the 
beak,  are  generally  swallowed  without  being  divided ;  and  do 
not  sojourn  or  pause  in  the  mouth,  as  is  the  case  in  mammals  ; 
they  have  no  veil  of  the  palate  (M/KM  palati,)  to  close  this  cavity 
behind  during  mastication.  (-SV,  First  Bmikof  Natural  His  on/.) 
The  form  of  the  beak  varies  much,  and  is  always  in  relation  to 
the  nature  of  the  food  made  use  of  by  the  bird ;  for  this  reason 
it  affords  excellent  marks  or  characters  for  the  classification  of 
these  animals  Sometimes  the  upper  mandible  is  hooked  and 
fitted  for  tearing  flesh,  at  others  the  beak  is  short,  straight  and 
stout,  suited  to  breaking  grains ;  at  other  times  again  it  is  wide 
and  very  open,  to  enable  the  bird  to  seize  easily  in  its  flight,  those 
insects  upon  which  it  is  destined  to  feed. 

27.  The  tongue  is  slightly  fleshy,   and  covered  with  horny 
papillaB  which  serve  to  retain  the  food  after   it  has  entered  the 
mouth.  The  os  hyoides  (hyoid  bone)  which  supports  this  organ, 
is    very  much   elongated,   and  terminates  in  two  long  delicate 
horns  which  curve  round  the  posterior  and  superior  part  of  the 
head,  their  length  depending  on  the  extensibility  of  the  tongue, 
(Plate  1,/fy.  3,  and  Plate  2,  fig.  3.) 

28.  The  salivary  gland*  are  less  numerous  than  in  the  mam- 
malia ;  all  are  placed  beneath  the  tongue,  and  are  formed  of  small 
round   grains,   or   granules.     Generally  the  saliva  is  thick  and 
viscid. 

29.  T,  he  oesophagus,  ( I'lite  2,  fig.  4.)  descends  along  the  neck, 
and  generally  presents,  at  its  inferior  part,  a  considerable  dilata- 
tion called  the  crop  or  n  It  »-s;  this  pouch   constitutes   a   first 
stomach  which  projects  above  the  clavicles;  it  is  very   large  in 
granivorous  birds  and  is  met  with  in  the  Rapaces  or  birds  of  prey, 
but  is  wanting  in  the  Ostrich,  and  in  most  piscivorous  birds,  and 
particularly  those  of  the  order  of  Grallatoriae. 

25.  Are  th  •  ot grins  of  nutrition  in  birds  the  same  as  in  mammals? 
26    In  wh,  t  pirticuhrs  does  the  apparatus  of  digestion  differ  from  that  of 
nvtmma's? 

27.  Wiiut  are  tlir  c'laracters  of  the  tong-uo  in  birds? 

28.  Hi  ve  bird<  s  ilivary  gl  mds  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  saliva  of  bird*  t 

29.  Wlr.t  i-  th  •  c-"p  wr  ingluvtes  ?     Is  a  crop  found  in  all  bi.'ds  ? 


ORGANS  OF  DIGESTION. 


30.  Below  the  crop,  the  oesophagus  becomes  narrow  and  enters 
the  thorax.  Soon  after  entering  the  thorax  it  again  dilates  to 
form  the  second  stomach,  called  prorentriculns,or  bulb  us  ylandu- 
losns.  This  cavity  is  remarkable  for  the  great  number  of  Lllicles 
which  are  lodged  in  the  thickness  of  its  parietes,  and  which  secrete 
an  acid  liquid  (the  gastric  juice)  designed  to  elfect  digestion.  This 
ventricle  is  much  larger,  and  more  numerously  supplied  with 
glands,  in  those  birds  that  have  no  crop,  than  in  those  that  are 
provided  with  it.  Internally,  it  opens  into  a  third  stomach,  the 
yizzard,  which  is  of  a  globular  form,  and  varies  in  structure  ac- 
cording to  the  diet  or  food  of  these  animals.  In  granivorous 
birds  its  muscular  parietes  are  very  thick  and  strong,  and  it  is 
lined  inside  by  a  kind  of  thick,  hard  epidermis  which  resembles 
horn  ;  in  diurnal  birds  of  prey,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  very  thin, 
and  in  some  aquatic  birds,  such  as  Herons  and  Pelicans,  it  forms 
but  a  single  sack  with  the  second  stomach. 

31.  The  inti'ttiiHs  of  birds  are  not  so  long,  generally,  as  those 
of  the  mammalia  ;  in  most  of  these  animals  they  are  only   two 
or  three  times  the  length  of  the  body.     The   intestinal   canal  is 
divided  into  two  portions,  namely,  the  small  and  the  large  intes- 
tine, and  near  the  anus,  it  has  two  appendices,  terminating  in  cul- 
de-sacs,  called  ccecums. 

32.  The  small  inles'ine  communicates  with  the  gizzard  by  the 
opening  of  the  pylorus,  which  is  situate  very  near   the  cardia, 
and  is  without  valves.     The  bile  is  poured  into  this  intestine  by 
two  ducts,  which  alternate  with   two   or  three   canals,  through 
which  passes  the  pancreatic  juice. 

33.  The  secreting  organ  of  the  bile,  the  liner,  is  generally  more 
voluminous  than  in  mammals,  and  is  divided  into   two  nearly 
equal  lobes.     The  (jall-bluddcr  is  ordinarily  large,  but  in   some 
birds,  such  as  the  Parrot,  it  is  entirely  wanting. 

34  The  pancreas  are  also  large,  and  are  found  in  the  first 
fold  formed  by  the  intestine, 

35.  The  ccRwims  vary  much  in  length  ;  in  the  granivorous,  and 
omnivorous  birds,  they  are  generally  thick  and  long;  they  are 
wanting  in  most  of  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey,  but  in  the  nocturnal 
birds  of  prey,  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  very  large. 

30.  What  constitutes  the  second  stomach  or  ventricle  in  birds  ?     What  is 
the  gizzard  ?     Are  the  gizzards  of  all  birds  alike? 

31.  What  is  the  length  of  the  intestinal  canal  in  birds  ?  How  is  it  divided  ? 

32.  How  docs  the  bile  enler  the  small  intestine  ! 

33.  Is  the  gall  bladder  found  in  all  birds  ? 

34.  Where  are  the  pancreas  situated  ? 

35.  Are  the  cceciuns  generally  of  the  same  sh:e?  Are  they  always  present 
in  birds? 

Y 


CIRCULATION—  RESPIRATION. 


36.  The  large  intestine  is  very  short,  and    terminates  by   a 
dilatation  called  cloaca,  which  receives  the  urine  as  well  as  the 
eggs. 

37.  The  chyle,  derived  from  the  digestion  of  food,  is  absorbed 
by  the  chyliferous  vessels,  which  unite  with  the  lymphatic  vessels 
of  the  extremities  to  form  two  thoracic  efwc/.v,  which    mount   in 
front  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  empty  into  the  jugular  veins, 
near  the  heart. 

38  The  blood  of  birds  does  not  contain  circular  globules  like 
that  of  mammals,  but  oval  globules  like  those  contained  in  the 
Dluod  of  reptiles  and  fishes.  These  solid  particles  are  more 
abundant  in  birds  than  in  other  vertebrate  animals,  and  the  tem- 
perature of  this  liquid  is  higher  than  in  the  mammalia,  which  are 
nevertheless,  warm  blooded  animals 

39.  The  circulation  is  carried  on  in  the  same  manner  as   in 
the  mammalia  ;  it  is  double  and  complete,  that  is,  before  reach- 
ing the  point  from  which  it  departed,   the  blood  passes  through 
two  systems  of  capillary  vessels,  and  all  the  venous  blood   is 
changed  into  arterial  blood. 

40.  The  heart  has  four  cavities,  namely  :  one   ventricle  and 
one  auricle  placed  on  the  left,  and  the  same  on  the   right  side. 
The  blood  is  forced  by  the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta,  which  dis- 
tributes it  to  the  capillary  vessels  of  all  parts  of  the  body.     This 
liquid  then  returns  to  the  heart  through  the  veins,  and  enters  the 
right   auricle,   which  forces  it  into  the  right  ventricle  which  is 
situate  beneath  it;  this  last   cavity,  by  contracting,  sends  the 
blood  to   the  lungs,  through  the  pulmonary  artery;  from  the 
pulmonary  artery  the  blood  passes  into  the  capillary  vessels   of 
the  lungs,  where  it  is  changed  into  arterial  blood  ;  then  it  enters 
the  pulmonary  veins,  and  passing  through  them,  reaches  the  left 
auricle  ;  finally,  the  left  auricle  pours  it  into  the  left  ventricle, 
whence  we  have  just  seen  it  go  forth  to  be  distributed  to  all  the 
organs. 

41.  Birds  are  distinguished  from  all  other  vertebrate  animals 
by  their  mode  of  respiration,  which  is  aerial,  as  it  is  in  the  mam- 
malia and  reptiles  ;  and  it  takes  place  not  only  in  the  lungs,  but 
also  in  the  substance  of  all  the  other  organs.     In  the  mammalia 

36.  What  is  the  cloaca  ? 

37.  What  becomes  of  the  chyle  formed  by  the  process  of  digestion? 

38.  What  if  remarkable  about  the  g-lobuks  in  the  blood  of  birds? 

39.  What  is  the  character  of  the  circulation  in  birds? 

40.  What  route  is  taken  by  the  blood  in  completing  its  circuit  through  the 
body  1 

41.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  respiration  in  birds?     In  what   respect 
do  the  lungs  of  birds  differ  from  the  same  organs  in  mammals  ? 


HABITS  OF  BIRDS.  23 

and  in  reptiles,  the  branchiae  terminate  in  little  cells,  which  all  end 
in  a  cul-de-sac,  and  the  air  that  enters  the  lungs  cannot  pass  be- 
yond them,  while  in  birds,  the  bronchiae  and  pulmonary  cells 
communicate  with  the  great  cavities, and  this  fluid,  in  this  manner, 
penetrates  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  even  into  the  interior  of  the 
bones  and  feathers.  (Plan-  2,  //>/.  I)  These  cavities,  by  means 
of  which  the  air  is  distributed  to  the  diiferent  parts  of  the  body, 
are  formed  of  very  thin  laminae  of  cellular  tissue,  and  are  desig- 
nated under  the  name  of  aerial  pouch  s. 

42.  Consequently,  the  blood  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  in 
passing  through  the  capillary  vessels  of  all  the  organs,  as  well  as 
in  passing  through  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  we 
might  say  that  the  respiration  of  I  first  animals,  as  well  as  their 
circulation,  is  double.    A  bird  consumes,  proportionably,  more  air 
than  any  other  animal,  and  perishes  more  rapidly  when  its  respi- 
ration is  interrupted. 

43.  The  cavity  of  the  thorax,  which   contains  the  heart  and 
lungs,  is  not  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  complete  muscular 
partition,  as  in  the  mammalia ;  the  diaphragm   is   rudimentary, 
and   only   occupies   the  sides  of  the   body ;  but  the  lungs  are 
adherent  to  the  ribs,  so  that  they  are  forced  to  dilate  when  these 
bones  separate  from  each  other ;  therefore,  the  movements  of  in- 
spiration and  expiration  are  performed  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  mammalia. 


LESSON    II. 

Eggs. — Iwba  t  ion  — Ne*  ts. — Migration. — Classifica  lion. 

Habits  of   Birds. 

1.  Birds,  like  reptiles,  fishes,  and   most  of  the   invertebrate 
animals,  (that  is,  without  vertebrae,)  are  oviparous,  that  is,  they 
lay  eggs  from  which  their  young  are  hatched. 

2.  The  Eyy  is  first  formed  in  an  organ,  named  ovary,  and 
descends  (Plata  2.  //#.  4.)  from  it,  through  a  long  tube  called 
oviduct ;  it  consists  at   first  of  a  membranous   sack  filled  with 
yellow  matter,  and  is  not  surrounded  with  the  white  till  it  reaches 
the  oviduct,  where  it  receives  a  more  solid  envelope  which  be- 
comes encrusted   with   a  calcareous  matter  that  constitutes  the 


42.  What  are  the  consequences  of  the   peculiarity  uf  the    respiratory  ap- 
paratus ? 

43.  What  is  the  character  of  the  diaphragm  in  birds  1 

1.  Why  are  birds  said  to  be  oviparous  ? 

2.  How  are  eggs  formed  ? 


24  INCUBATION—  MDIFICATION. 

shell.  Upon  the  membrane  of  the  yolk,  or  yellow  matter,  we 
perceive  a  whitish  point,  which,  in  the  course  of  its  developement. 
becomes  the  young  animal,  for  the  nourishment  or  protection  of 
which,  all  the  other  parts  of  the  egg  are  destined. 

3.  In  order  that  the  young  bird  may  be  developed  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  egg,  it  must  be  maintained  at  a   certain   degree  of 
heat ;  in  very  warm  countries,  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  sometimes 
sufficient  to  bring  about  this  phenomenon,  and  there,  certain  birds 
abandon  their  eggs;  but  in  most  cases  it  is  altogether    different, 
and  both  parents  or  the  mother  alone,  maintain   the   necessary 
heat  by  sitting  on  them. 

4.  The  duration   of  inc+balion,  (or  the  time  required  by  the 
young  bird  to  become  developed  in  the  interior  of  the  egg)  varies 
in  different  species,  but  it  is  the  same  in  all   birds  of  the  same 
species ;  it  is  from  forty  to  forty-five  days  for  Swans,  twenty-five 
days  for   Ducks,   twenty-one   days  for   Hens,   from   twelve    to 
fifteen    days   for   domesticated  Canary  birds,  and  only  twelve 
days  for  the  Humming-bird. 

5.  Almost  al!  birds  construct  a  nest,  to  receive  their  eggs    and 
to  serve  as  a  dwelling   for  their  young,  which,  during  the  early 
period  of  life,  are  unprovided  with  feathers,  extremely  delicate,  and 
incapable  of  moving,  and  of  feeding  themselves.     Generally  there 
is  displayed  in  these  structures  an   art,  an  adroitness,    and   an 
elegance  which  excite  our  admiration  ;  and    one  thing  not  less 
surprising  is  the  regularity  with  which  all  the  successive  genera- 
tions perform  the  same  tasks,  and  build  nests  exactly  alike,  even 
under  circumstances  which  prevent  these  animals   from  seeing 
and  taking  lessons  from  their  parents ;  a  wonderful  instinct  guides 
them,  and  induces  them  to  take  many  precautions,  all  the  utility 
of  which  they  cannot  anticipate,  or  appreciate  before  hand. 

6.  The  form,  arrangement,  and  placing  of  the   nest,    vary  for 
almost  every  species  of  bird.     That  which  is  constructed  by  the 
largest  birds  of  prey  rests  upon  a  flat  surface  afforded  by  some 
part  of  a  rock,  or  on  the  platform  of  some  tall  tower ;  its  extent 
is  very  considerable,  and  every  year  contributes  to  its  increase, 
for  it  is  rare  for  these  birds  to  abandon  their  first  monument  of 
maternal  tenderness ;  those  that  leave  it,  return    periodically   to 
lay  their  eggs.     This  nest  is  frequently  composed  of  such  stout 

3.  What  circumstance  is  necessary  to  the  devclopement  of  the  egg? 

4.  Is  the  same  period  of  time  required  by  all  birds  for  incubation  ? 

5.  What  means  are  provided  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs,  and  of  the  young 
oirds  which  escape  from  them  ? 

6.  Are  the  nests  of  a!l  birds  alike  in  their  structure  ?     What  is  the  struc- 
ture of  the  nests  of  birds  of  prey  ? 


NIDI  FTC  AT  ION.  2< 


pieces  of  wood,  that  one  would  scarcely  believe  they  could  be 
carried  by  a  bird,  if  he  were  not  aware  of  the  extraordinary 
strength  of  their  muscles ;  they  are  so  arranged  as  not  to  yield 
readily  to  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  they  support  boughs  which 
are  bound  to  each  other  by  the  remains  of  food  and  of  excre- 
ment, forming  a  solid  habitation  bearing  the  name  of  eyry. 
Those  species  that,  in  the  construction  of  their  nests,  only 
employ  rushes  and  reeds,  accumulate  them  in  such  quantities,  and 
fix  them  so  firmly  to  the  platform  that  rains  or  storms  seldom 
cause  their  destruction. 

7.  Most  birds  build  their  nests  in  the  bifurcation  of  the  branches 
of  tre^s;  in  this  case,  bits  of  straw  and  small  pieces   of  wood, 
carried  in  the  beak,  tied  and  interlaced  by  means  of  this,  organ, 
and  the  aid  of  the  foot,  constitute  the  external  frame,  which  sup- 
ports the  moss  and  down  that  form  the  bed.     Some  species  have 
the  habit  of  suspending  their  nest,  which  is  wrought   in   a   still 
more  artist-like  manner,  to  the  extremity  of  a   flexible  twig,  so 
that,  in  obedience  to  every  impulse  of  the    winds,  this   cradle 
and  the  sitting  bird  that  inhabits  it,  experience   an  almost  con- 
tinued rocking. 

8.  Certain  nests  present,  in  their  structure,  a  perfect  masonry 
made  of  little  sticks,  gravel,  or  small   leaves  impregnated   with 
mortar,  formed  of  earth  softened  with  the  salivary  humor  of  the 
bird,  or  simply  mixed  with  it.     How  much  toil  and  how  frequent 
must   be  the  goings  and  comings  for  the   completion   of  this 
work!     And,   when   we   remember  that  the  bird  has,  for  the 
execution  of  its  task,  but  a  single  instrument,  which  also  serves 
for  the  transportation  of  the  materials,  we  cannot   withhold  the 
admiration  which  is  so  justly  merited.    The  form  of  these  mortar- 
built  nests,  is  ordinarily  either  spherical,  conical,  or  elliptical ;  they 
are  established  in  the  angles  of  windows,  of  chimnies,  of  walls, 
and  often  on  the  tables  of  sheltered   rocks.     They  are  either 
isolated  or  placed  one  against  the  other ;  the  entrance  is  made 
either  on  the  top,  or  in  one  side,  and  sometimes  in  the  lower  part. 
Frequently  we  find  in  these  structures   several  compartments ; 
sometimes  a  sort  of  vestibule  is  separated  from  the  true  nest,  by  a 
partition,  and  it  is  into  this  apartment  that  the  male  retires,  after 
he  has  carried  the  necessary  fodd  to  his  sitting  female  companion. 

7.  What  is  the  situation  usually  selected  by  the  majority  of  birds  for  build- 
ing their  nests  ? 

8.  What  instruments  are  used  by  birds  in  the  construct!  >n  of  their  nests? 
What  is  the  form  of  those  nests  that  are  put  together,  like  mason  work,  wiib 
a  species  of  mortar  ?     Do  nests  ever  contain  more  than  one  apartment  I 

Y2 


i>6 INCUBATION.— MIGRATION. 

9.  There  are  also  birds  that  build  their  nests  upon  the  ground, 
and  in  order  to  guard  against  their  being  submerged   by  heavy 
rains,  elevate  them  on   hillocks   of  earth  :  these   nests  are  con- 
structed with  less  care  :  we  here  find  only  an  abundance  of  down, 
sustained  by   flexible  twigs,  suitably   interlaced ;  finally,    some 
birds  are  content  to  form  an  excavation  in  the  earth  or  sand,  in 
which   they  deposite  their  eggs,   which   for  the  most  part  they 
assiduously  sit  upon,  but  which  they  sometimes  abandon  during 
the  day  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  ;  nevertheless,  in  this  latter  case, 
their   solicitude   induces  them  to  cover  their  eggs  with  a  light 
layer  of  sand  or  other  matter,  either  to  hide  them   from  animals 
that  seek  them  for  food,  or  to  protect  them  from  the  too  great 
intensity  of  the  sun's  rays. 

10.  The  constancy  of  birds  in  sitting  on  their  eggs  is  admira- 
ble: sometimes  both  parents  divide  this  care  between  them  ;  at 
other  times  the  male  only  watches  the  nest,  and   brings  food    to 
the  female,  while  she  remains  sitting  on  the  eggs ;  and  in  other 
species  again,  the  female  alone  is  charged  with    the  incubation. 
Generajly,  the  mother  only  leaves  her  nest  for  a   few   moments 
when  pressed  by  hunger,  and  then  seeming'y  with  regret;  and, 
in  most  cases,  after  her  young  have  appeared,  she  bestows  upon 
them,  and  for  a  long  time  after  their  birth,  the  most  tender  care 
and  attention.     She  covers  them  with  her  wings  to  protect  them 
from   the  cold,   brings  them  choice  food,  which  she  often  half 
digests,  and  then  disgorges  into  their  throat,  to  render  it  better 
suited    to   their   tender    stomach  ;  she    guides  their  first  steps, 
teaches  them  to  use  their  wings,  and  when  threatened  by  danger, 
displays  as  much  courage  as  devotion  in  their  protection. 

11.  In  this  particular,  it  is  very  interesting  to  study  the  habits 
of  birds;  but  this  is  not  the  most  remarkable  point  in  their  his- 
tory.    The  most  singular  phenomenon  in  the  lives  of  birds,  is 
unquestionably  the  habit,  which  certain  species  have,  of  making, 
at  appointed  periods  of  the  year,  long  journeys,  and  changing 
their  climate  according  to  the  seasons. 

12.  Birds  that  feed  on  insects,  early  leave   temperate  climates 
to  go  towards  the  south,  where  they  find  in  the  winter   a  more 
abundant  supply  of  food  ;  other  birds  change  their  country  to 
seek  a  place  more  propitious  for  their  young,  and  go  sometimes 


9.  Do  birds  always  build  their  nests  in  elevated  situations  ? 

10.  Does  the  m  ;le  bird  ever  assist  in  the  process  of  incubation  ?     In  what 
way  ?     Are  the  young  birds  able  to  feed  themselves  when  they  first  escape 
from  the  shel'  ? 

1 1.  What  is  the  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  general  history  of 
birds? 

12.  What  are  the  reasons  which  induce  many  birds  to 


MIGRATION.  27 


to  the  north  and  sometimes  to  the  south  to  lay  their  eggs ;  in 
others  again  this  migration  is  not  determined  by  any  appreciable 
cause. 

13.  Some  migratory  birds  perform  their  journeys  through  the 
air  alone  or  only  accompanied  by  their  females  ;  but  the  number  is 
small  comparatively  to  those  that  travel  in  company.  We  admire 
in  the  latter  the  instinct  which  induces  them  to  assemble  at  a  cer- 
tain place,  ten  or  twelve  days  previous  to  the  time  of  departure, 
which  is  ordinarily  an  indication  of  a  change  of  weather;  for  it 
is  remarked  that  birds  feel  the  influences  sufficiently  early  to  derive 
prognostics  of  the  change  of  temperature  from  their  deportment 
and  certain  habits.  During  the  whole  journey,  the  most  perfect 
oyder  prevails  throughout  the  whole  troop;  to  be  convinced  of 
this  fact  we  have  only  to  observe  the  flight  of  some  large  species, 
such  as  geese.  The  conducting  of 'the  troop  is  confided  to  a 
chief  placed  at  the  head  of  two  files,  more  or  less  separated  from 
each  other,  which  meet  at  a  point ;  the  chief  is  the  summit  or 
point  of  this  moving  angle,  and  opposes  the  first  resistance  of  the 
air,  clears  the  way,  and  the  whole  band  follows  him,  observing 
the  most  perfect  order.  As  the  efforts  of  the  chief  are  very 
violent,  and  as  he  cannot  support  them  during  the  whole  voyage, 
he  is  perceived,  when  overcome  by  fatigue,  to  yield  his  post  to 
his  next  neighbour,  and  fall  into  the  ranks  at  the  extremity  of 
one  or  other  of  the  files.  The  period  of  these  great  migrations 
is  fixed  by  nature  for  each  species  of  migratory  birds,  and  it  is 
remarked,  they  follow  the  same  route  every  year:  hence,  in 
certain  districts,  the  fowlers  or  bird-catchers,  count  upon  their 
passage  as  upon  a  revenue  of  rent  that  falls  due  every  quarter, 
and  calculate  in  advance  the  period,  and  the  chances.  Armed 
with  their  nets  and  all  the  apparatus  of  the  chase,  they  station 
themselves  in  the  gorges  and  valleys  over  which  the  flocks  pass, 
and  reach  their  several  points  a  few  minutes  before  their  arrival. 
These  bands  or  flocks  are  sometimes  so  numerous,  and  the  in- 
dividuals composing  them  are  so  close  together  that  they  might 
be  readily  mistaken  for  dense  clouds. 

14.  Certain  birds  always  lead  an  erratic  life,  and  seem  to  have 
no  country  :  these  are  the  most  powerful  on  the  wing;  many 
seem  not  to  be  impeded  by  the  strongest  wind,  and  appear  to 
delight  in  the  midst  of  storms.  They  form  a  striking  contrast 
with  a  small  number  of  species,  less  favoured  by  nature,  which, 

13.  How  are  these  migrations  formed  ?     At  what  period  do  these  migra 
lions  take  place  ?     Are  these  periods  vi  ry  certain? 

14.  Do  all  birds  belong  to  some  one  or  other  country  ?  Are  all  birds  act;vo 
in  flight? 

3 


CLASSIFICATION. 


deprived  of  the  organs  of  flight,  and  possessing  a  slow  and 
embarrassed  gait,  are  condemned  never  to  leave  the  rock  on 
which  they  were  born  The.se  birds  exercise  their  patience  in 
awaiting  for  prey  that  is  brought  to  them  by  the  rolling  in  of  the 
waves ;  and  it  is  only  when  it  escapes  them,  and  they  become 
hard  pressed,  that  they  venture  into  shallow  depths  in  pursuit  of  it. 

15  Birds  also  dilFer  very  much  from  each  other  in  their  diet 
or  food  ;  some  seek  living  prey  only,  and  feed  exclusively  on 
the  produce  of  their  hunting  or  fishing;  sometimes  they  catch 
other  birds  of  prey  and  force  them  to  disgorge  the  food    which 
they  were  about  to  eat.     There  are  others  which,  with  appetites 
not  less  carneous,  but  wanting  in  the  strong  arms  and  courage  of 
the  first,  only  prey  upon  dead  bodies.     Others    live  exclusively 
on  worms  or  insects,  and  others  again,  eat  nothing  but  grains. 

Of  the  Classification  <f  Birds. 

16.  <3irds  differ  much  less  from  each  other  than  the  different 
mammals;  except  some  modification   in    the   plumage,   in    the 
general  form  of  the  body,  in  the  disposition  of  the  beak,  and  in 
the  conformation  of  the  feet,  they  resemble  each  other  very  much  ; 
hence,  it  is  very  difficult  to  subdivide  the  class  which  they  form. 

17.  The  number  of  species  of  birds  known  by  naturalists  is 
about  five  thousand.     Their  classification,  like  that  of  mammals, 
is  founded  chiefly  upon  the  modifications  that   are   remarked  in 
the  organs  of  mastication  and  prehension,  or  of  locomotion,  that 
is,  the  beak  and  feet. 

18.  According  to  these  characters  they  are  divided  into  six 
ORDERS,  namely ;  Rapaces,  or   Birds  of  Prey  ;    Passerinae,    or 
Migratory  Birds;  Scansoriae,  or  Climbing   Birds;   Gallinaceae; 
Grallatoride,  or  Waders;  and  Palmipedes,  or  Swimming  Birds. 

19.  The  principal  characters  by  which  these  groups   are   dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table. 

15.  Upon  what  substances  do  birds  feed  ? 

16  What    renders    it   difficult   to  sub-divide  the   class    of    birds    into 
gf-nera,  &c.? 

17.  Upon  what  is  the  classification  of  birds  founded? 

18.  Int  >  how  many  orders  is  the  class  of  birds  divided  ?     What  are   the 
names  of  these  orders? 

19.  (Answered  by  the  table.)     What  orders  compose  the    division    of  ter- 
restrial llrds  ?     Whut  are  the  dis  injruishingr  char.icters  of  the  Accipitres  or 
Rapacis?     What  are  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  Passerinae7    By  what 
means  are  the  ScariForiae  distinguished  from  the  Passerinae?     What  are  the 
distinguishing  characters  of  the  Gallinaccae?     What   ordors   compose  the 
division  nf  Aquatic  birds?     How  are  the  Gral  atorise  distinguished?     How 
are  the  Palmipedes  recognised  ? 


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30  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 


LESSON    III. 

ORDER  OF  RAPACES,  (or  jJccipitres) — Zoological  Characters.— 
Habits. — Division  into  two  Families. 

FAMILY  OF  DIURNJE. — Zoological  Characters  and  Habits  of  Vul 
tines,  ( Yellow  Vulture,  King  of  the  Vultures,  Condor,  Perc 
nopterus  of  Egypt.) — Griffins  — Tribe  of  Falcons  — Division 
into  two  groupes,  noble  and  ignoble. —  Falconry,  {Common 
Falcon) — Eagles. — Fisher-  Eagles.  —  Sparrow-Hawks. — Kite* 
— Buzzards. — Harriers. — Characters  and  Habits. 

FAMILY  OF  NOCTURNE. — Characters  and  Habits. — (Owl. — Strix. 
— Due.) 


ORDER   OF    RAPACES,    OR   ACCIPITRES. 

(Birds  of  Prey.} 

1.  Birds  of  Prey  are  recognised  by  their  beak,  being  hooked 
and  terminated  by  a  point  which  is  sharp  and  bent  downward^ 
and  by  their  feet  being   very  strong  and  armed  with  powerful, 
hooked  nails.     (I* late  3,/fy    1,  to  8.') 

2.  They  are  generally   remarkable   for  their    strength;    the 
muscles  of  their  thighs  and  legs  are  very   voluminous  and  give 
great  power  to  their  talons  ;  their  tarsi  are  rarely  elongated  :  all 
of  them  have  four  toes,  the  first  of  which,  or  thumb,  is  directed 
backwards ;  the  nails  of  this  toe,  and  of  the  internal  toe  are  the 
strongest,  and  there  is  often  a   very  small  palmate  membrane 
betwixt  the  bases  of  the  external  toes.     Their  wings  are  large, 
and  the  sternum,  which  affords  place  for  the  attachment  of  the 
principal  muscles  of  flight,  is  generally  very  much  developed  and 
without  lateral  notches. 

3.  It   is  also  to  be  remarked  that  their   nares   are  pierced 
through  a  membrane,  called  Cera,  that  covers  the  whole  base  oi 
the  beak.     - 

4.  All  the  Rapaces  live  exclusively  on  flesh  ;    they    pursue 
other  birds  and  even   small   quadrupeds  and  reptiles;  they  are 
also  very  powerful  in  flight. 

1.  How  are  the  birds  of  pr  y  characterised? 

2.  What  are  the  characters   of  the  legs  of  birds  of  prey  ?     What  is  the 
number  of  their  toes  ?     What  is  their  direction  ?     What  is  the  character  ol 
Ihe  sternum  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  cera? 

4.  O«i  what  do  the  Rapaces  feed  ? 


BIRDS  OF  PREY.  31 


5.  Like  the  Passei  inae  and  Scansoriae,  birds  of  prey  are  bo»'n 
generally  naked,  with  the  eyes  closed,  and  cannot  live   without 
the  assistance  of  their  parents,  who,  during  their  tendei   age, 
supply  all  their  wants. 

6.  These   birds   form  two  families  :     the    Diurnce,   and    the 
Nocturnce.  which  may  be  distinguished  by  means  of  the  follow- 
ing characters  : 

r      Eyes  directed  from  the  side;  the  head  and  neck 
C  Diurnai.      J  well  proportioned  ;  the  external  toe    directed   for- 
j  ward,  and  almost  always  united  to  the  middle  toe 
[by  a  small  membrane. 
RAPACES.  j 

f      Eyes  directed  forward  ;  head   very    large    and 
[_  av,v*..   na.\  ntck  very  short;    external    toe    may   be    directed 
either  forwards  or  backwards. 


FAMILY  OF  DAY  BIRDS  OF  PREY,  OR 

7.  The  Diurnae  have  their  eyes  directed  sidewise  ;  the  head 
and  neck  are  well  proportioned;  (Plate  3,  fiy.  1.  fyc.)  the  nares 
are  pierced  through  a  naked  membrane,  called  cera,  which  covers 
the  base  of  the  beak;  they  have  three  toes  in  front  and  one  be- 
hind   without  feathers,   and  the  two  external  ones  are  almost 
always  united  at  their  base  by  a  short  membrane;  flight  power- 
ful ;  the  quills  strong;  the  plumage  close;  the  sternum  large  and 
completely  ossified,  and  the  fourchette  semi-circular,  and  widely 
separated  ;  finally,  the  stomach  is  almost  entirely  membranous, 
and  the  intestines  of  small  extent. 

8.  The  family  of  Diurnae  is  divided  into  three  principal  tribes, 
easily  recognised  by  the  following  characters: 

(Tribes.) 
A  more  or  less  consider. 


DlURNAL 

RAPACES, 
having 


able  part  of  the  head  and  >  VULTURES. 
neck  destitute  of  feathers. 

.,^~>.,       »..-       —  .....  ~       p. 


Head  covered  Wilhfe..>GRIFrma. 
t  thers.  \ 

Eyes  surmounted  by  a  projecting  eyebrow  which  ) 
makes  them  appear  sunk  in  the  head ;  talons  very  >  FALCONS. 
strong.  \ 


_  strong, 


5.  What  is  the  condition  of  birds  of  prey  at  the  time  of  birth  ? 

6.  Into  what  familit  s   is  the  order  of  Rapaces  divided  ?     How    are    the 
Diurnae  characterised  ?     In  what  respects  do  the  Nocturnae  differ  from  the 
Diurn?E? 

7.  How    are    the    DiurnaB   distinguished  ?     On    finding    p,    membranous 
Btornnch  and  intestines  of  small  extent  in  a  bird,  upon  what  would  you   infer 
that  it  habitually  fed  ? 

8.  Into   what   tribes  is  the  fami!y  of  Dinrnae    divided?     What  are    the 
characters  of  Vultures?     How  do  Griffins  differ  from  Vultures  ?     What  are 
the  characters  of  Falcons? 

3* 


32  VULTURES. 


Tribe  of  Vultures. 

9.  The  Vultures, —  Vultur,— are  recognised  by  the  nakedness 
of  a  portion  of  the  head  or  even  of  the  neck,  and  by  the  form  of 
their  beak  which  is  elongated  and  curved  only   at   the   end. 
(Mate  3,  fig.  4,  mid  6.) 

10.  These  birds  have  a  disagreeable  aspect,  a  tainted  odour, 
and  their  habits  excite  disgust ;  they  are  cowardly,  and  feed  on 
the  most  putrid  carrion  rather  than  on  living  prey.     The  power 
of  their  talons  does  not  correspond  to  their  size,  and  they  make 
use  of  their  beak  rather  than  of  their  claws.     They  are  extremely 
voracious :  but  after  they  have  been  complely  satiated,  it  seems, 
they  can  wait  several  weeks  for  an  opportunity  of  feeding  again. 
After  they  have  eaten,  their  crop  forms  a  large  projection  above 
the  fourchette ;  they  become  dull  and  stupid,  and  a  sanguineous, 
foetid  humor  flows  from  the  nose.     The  sense  of  smell  in   these 
animals  is  very  fine,  and  enables  them  to  perceive  at  incredible 
distances,  the  remains  of  dead  bodies,  which  they  seek  for  food. 

11.  In  Peru,  Egypt,  and  some  countries  of  the  East,  they  are 
very  useful  to  man,  for  they  serve  to  cleanse  the  streets  of  animal 
remains  that  it  is  customary  to  throw  there,  and  they  may  be 
seen  promenading  many  towns,  in  small  bands,  and  watching  even 
in  the  houses  for  recent  or  putrid  dead  bodies. 

12.  Vultures  live,  generally,  in  pairs;   they  prefer    building 
their  nests  on  inaccessible  rocks,  and  construct  them  of  pieces 
of  wood,  joined  together  by  a  sort  of  mortar :  the  young  are 
covered  with  down  when  born,  and  are  fed  on  half  digested  food, 
which  is  disgorged  by  their  parents  before  them. 

13.  Their  wings  are  so  long,  that  when  they  walk,  they  keep 
them  half  extended,  and  they  often  experience  difficulty  in  taking 
to  flight  after  alighting  on  the  ground  ;  their  ascent  is  slow  but 
well  sustained,  and  is  always  effected  obliquely  and  by  constantly 
turning  about. 

14.  Thetribeof  Vultures  is  divided  into  four  genera,  namely:  the 
Vultures  properly  so  called,  the  Sarcoramphus,  the  Cathartes,  and 
the  Percnopterus,  which  are  distinguished  in  the  following  manner: 

9.  How  are  Vultures  recognised  ? 

10.  What  is  the  general  character  of  Vultures  ? 

1 1.  In  what  way  do  Vultures  make  themselves  useful  to  man  ? 

12.  What  is  the  condition  of  Vultures  when  first  born  ?     Upon    what  do 
Ihey  feed  ? 

13.  Do  Vultures  rise  into  the  air  readily  from  the  ground? 

14.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Vultures  divided?     How    is    the  Sarcoramphua 
distinguished  from  the  Vulture  properly  so  called  ?     In  what   respect  doe§ 
the  Cathartes  differ  from  those  two  genera  ?     How  does   the   Percnopteru* 
differ  from  the  Cathartes  ? 


KING  OF  THE  VULTURES.-CONDOR. 


r 
;      I 

ad   •{ 


(Genera.) 

!     Without    )  VULTURE 

cai  uncles,  s  PROPERLY  so  CALLED 
)     Divested  of     |    and  the  head 
feathers,    as    j  With        )        « 

well  as  the    \  [  caruncles.  \        SARCORAMPHUS, 

the  head;  the  ! 

nares          (_  Longitudinal, •     CATHARTES. 

Js   L  Almost  entirely  feathered, PERCNOPTERITS. 

15.  VULTURES  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  are  distinguished  by  their 
naked  head  and  neck,  by  the  ruff  or  collar  of  feathers  that  sur- 
rounds the  base  of  the  neck,  by  their  stout,  strong  beak,  and  by 
the  disposition  of  their  nares.     (I'lute  3,  /?//.  6.)     They  have  no 
fleshy  excrescences  on  the  head,  and  they  belong  exclusively  to 
the  old  continent, 

16.  The  most  widely  diffused  species,  is  the  Yellow  or  Fulvous 
VulturCi—Vultur  fuLus, — which    equals,    and  even   surpasses 
the  Swan  in  size ;  it  is  found  on  all  the  mountains  of  the  eastern 
continent. 

17.  The  SARCORAMPHUS  differs  from  the  Vulture   properly  so 
called  in  the  fleshy  caruncles  which  grow  above  the  base  of  the 
beak;  it  inhabits  the  western  continent.     [The  genus  consists  of 
two  species.] 

18.  The  King  of  the  Vultures, —  Vullnr  papny — is  a  species 
of  Sarcoramphus  of  the  size  of  the  goose,  which  inhabits  the 
warm  parts  of  South  America  ;  it  derives  its  name  from  the  fear 
with  which  it  inspires  another  species  of  Vulture  of  the   same 
country,  (the  Percnopterus  Urubu)  which  abandons  its  prey  and 
always  gives  place  to  him. 

1  J.  To  this  group  also  belongs  the  Coiidw,  or  great  Vulture 
of  tm>  dudes, —  Vultiir  gryphus, — so  famous,  through  exagge- 
rated accounts,  for  its  size  and  strength.  It  is  not  much  more 
than  four  feet  long,  but  its  spread  wings  often  measure  more  than 
ten  feet ;  it  flies  higher  in  the  air  than  any  other  bird ;  it  inhabits 
the  most  elevated  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  and  never 
descends  to  the  plain  except  when  pressed  by  hunger.  [Condors 
are  frequently  seen,  on  the  shores  of  Chile  and  Peru,  feeding  on 
the  carcasses  of  whales  that  have  been  accidentally  thrown  upon 
the  beach,  or  left  by  whalemen.] 

15.  What  are   he  generic  characters  of  Vultures  properly  so  called  T 
]  6.  What  species  of  Vulture  is  most  common  1     Where  is  it  found  ? 
17.  Where  is  the  Sarcoramphus  found  ? 
18    From  what  circumstance  does  the  King- of  the  Vultures  derive  i's  name  ? 

19.  What  is  the  size  of  the  Condor  ?     Where  is  it  met  with  ?     What  ar« 
ts  habits  ?     For  whit  is  it  most  remarkable  ? 

Z 


34      CATHAR1  ES.— TURKEY  BUZZARD.-PERCNOPTERnS. 

"Just  before  turning  off  from  the  beach,  we  came  to  the  recent 
carcass  of  a  mule,  upon  which  seven  large  Condors  and  a  crowd 
of  buzzards  were  feasting.  They  allowed  us  to  approach  so 
near  that,  had  we  been  provided  with  arms,  we  might  have  shot 
them  as  they  arose  slowly  on  the  wing.  These  birds  frequently 
destroy  small  animals  They  sometimes  form  a  circle  around  a 
sheep,  or  a  goat,  and,  spreading  out  their  wings  approach  till  they 
strike  their  prey,  and  then  filling  upon  it,  devour  the  body,  even 
to  the  bones  In  the  country  they  are  caught  in  the  following 
manner.  A  pen  is  formed  of  high  palisadoes  driven  into  the 
ground,  and  a  fresh  carcass  placed  in  the  centre.  It  is  left  alone. 
In  a  short  time,  the  Condors,  who  scent  their  f  >od  for  many  miles, 
descend  into  it,  and  while  feasting,  the  peones,  (labouring  men  in 
Chile  are  so  called)  armed  with  clubs,  and  the  body  and  limbs 
well  protected  with  hide,  enter  the  enclosure  and  commence  the 
work  of  destruction.  These  birds  cannot  rise  without  running 
thirty  or  forty  yards,  which  the  limits  of  the  pen  will  not  allow, 
and  they  are  clubbed  to  death,  not  however,  without  making 
resistance,  and  occasionally  inflicting  very  severe  wounds  on 
their  pursuers." — Three  Yearn  in  the  Pacific. 

20.  The  CA THARTUS,  which  have  no  caruncles  on  the  head, 
and  whose  nares  are  longitudinal  and  oval,  are   also  found   in 
America  ;  there  is  one  species  ((lathwtes  Vullnrinu*.  also  called 

Vwltur  Cfilif  rnianttsj  which  approaches  to  the  Condor  in  size, 
and  has  wings,  even  longer,  in  proportion.  The  tarsi  are  par- 
tially covered  by  the  feathers  of  the  legs.  It  inhabits  California. 
[The  Turkey  linzzarfl,  or  Gulliuaza, —  Vullur  aura, — 
Cathartrs  aura, — is  of  a  bluish  black  colour,  and  as  large  as 
a  cock.  It  is  common  in  warm  parts  of  the  United  States,  and 
is  occasionally  seen  as  :ar  north  as  New  Jersey.  It  feeds  upon 
carrion  and  filth,  but  never  attacks  living  animals,  except  when 
helpless  and  unable  to  defend  themselves.  This  bird  is  very 
common  in  Peruvian  towns,  where  it  acts  the  part  of  scavenger, 
and  is  for  this  reason  protected  by  law.] 

21.  The  PERCNOPTEKI,  (Piutr  3,  fiy.-4  )  which  are  distinguished 
from  all  the  preceding  by  their  feathered  neck  and  loner,  slender 
beak,  are  of  moderate  size,  and  do  not  possess  nearly  so  much 
strength  as  the  other  Vultures;  but  they  attack  with    greater 
avidity   carrion  and  all  sorts  of  filth  which  attract  them  from  a 
distance;  and  they  do  not  disdain  excrement  itself. 

22.  The  Ptrcnopterug  of  Egypt,  (Pharaoh's   Bird,) — Vultur 
ftercnoplems,   or  Vullur  kvcocephalus,  or  Vultur  fuscus, — is  of 

20.  What  are  the  Cathartes?     Where  are  they  f  >und  ? 

21.  How  are  (he  Percnopteri  distinguished  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

22.  Wnat  is  Pharaoh's  bud  ?     Where  is  it  found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


GRIFFINS—  FALCONS.  3.5 


the  size  of  a  crow  :  it  is  very  common  in  the  warm  countries  of 
the  eastern  continent,  and  follows  the  caravans  through  :he 
desert  to  devour  all  that  die.  The  ancient  Egyptians  respected 
it  on  account  of  the  services  it  rendered  the  country  by  removing 
dead  bodies:  it  is  often  seen  represented  on  their  monuments. 
Even  at  the  present  day  no  injury  is  offered  to  it,  and  there  are 
even  devout  mussulmans  who  bequeath  wherewith  to  support  a 
certain  number. 

23.  In  America  there  is  another  species  of  Percnopterus,    the 
Urubu, —  Vulturjota, — which  performs  the  same  services  there. 

Tribe  of  Griffins. 

24.  These  birds,—  Gypae fos,— (Plate  3,  fig.  3.)  have  the  head 
and  neck  almost  entirely  covered  with   feathers;    the  beak  is 
strong,  straight,  hooked  at  the  end,  and  inflated    on  the  curve: 
the  nostrils  are  covered   by   stiff  bristles ;    there  is   a  pencil  of 
bristles  under  the  beak;  the  tarsi  are  short  and  feathered  to  the 
toes. 

25.  In  their  conformation  and  habits,  they  very  closely  resem- 
ble the  Vultures.     Their  talons  are  proportionally  weak,  and  their 
wings  are  long  and  partly  separate  when  in  repose.     When  the 
crop  is  full  it  projects  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck. 

26.  The  Lamb  Vultun', —  Vnltnr  ba'banis. —  /*«/c<>    barbatus, 
— (The  Laemrrer-geyer) — which  the  Greeks  named   Pkeue,  and 
the  Latins  called  Ossifraya,  is  the  largest  of  the  birds  of  prey  of 
the  eastern  continent,  the  high  mountain  chains  of  which  it  in- 
habits: it  is  almost  as  large  as  the  Condor,  and    attacks   lambs, 
goats,  chamois,  and,  it  is  said,  even  sleeping  men      Generally  it 
endeavours  to  force  animals  to  throw  themselves  from  precipitous 
rocks,  and  devours  them  after  they  have  been  killed  by  the  fall. 
His  mantle  is  black  with  a  white  line  in  the  middle  of  each  feather, 
and  all  beneath  the  body  as   well  as  the  neck  is  of   a  clear, 
brilliant,  yellow  colour. 

Tribe  of  falcons. 

27 .  The  Diurnal  Rapaces  composing  this  tribe  have  the  nead 
and  neck  covered  with  feathers,  like  the   preceding,  but  are  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  their  projecting  eye-brows  which  make 

23.  What  is  the  Uruhu  ? 

24.  How  are  the  Griffins  distinguished  ? 

25.  In  what  particulars  do  Griffins  resemble  Vultures  ? 

26.  What  is  fie  Lmib  Vulture  ?  Wrr  re  is  it  found  '!  What  are  its  hab'.UT 

27.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Falcons  distinguished  from  other  tribes  of  Dm  in*.' 
Ra paces  ? 


36  FALCONS. 


the  eyes  appear  as  if  they  were  sunk  into  the  head,  and  give  to 
the  physiognomy  of  these  animals  an  aspect  altogether  different 
from  that  of  the  Vultures  and  Griffins.  (I'mte  3,  />>/  1,  7,  und  8.) 

28.  These  birds  have  a  lofty,  rapid,  and  sustained  flight;  their 
sense  of  sight,  which  is  more  extended  and  clearer  than  in  any 
other  animal,  enables  them  to  perceive  the  smallest  prey,  when 
they  themselves  are  so  high  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  our  vision. 

29  Most  of  them  feed  willingly  on  flesh  while  it  is  yet  palpi, 
tating;  but  when  pressed  by  hunger,  they  do  not  refuse  dead 
bodies,  as  it  has  been  generally  believed,  and  instead  of  eating 
their  prey  on  the  spot  as  the  vultures  do,  they  bear  it  off*  to  their 
eyry ;  the  largest  species  attack  mammals  and  birds,  others  live 
on  fishes,  some  feed  on  reptiles,  and  others  are  exclusively  in- 
sectivorous. The  female  is  generally  a  third  larger  than  the 
male,  and  for  this  reason,  is  often  designated  under  the  name  of 
tarsel.  Moulting  takes  place  but  once  a  year,  and  age  induces 
such  great  change  in  the  plumage  of  these  birds,  that  naturalists 
have  frequently  mistaken  varieties  depending  on  this  cause  alone, 
for  distinct  species;  the  young  are  generally  variegated  with 
spots  and  longitudinal  stripes,  while  the  old  ones  are  more 
uniform  in  colour,  and  are  rather  striped  transversely;  they  are 
not  clothed  in  their  last  or  permanent  livery  until  their  third, 
fourth,  or  even  sixth  year,  and  then  the  colours  of  their  plumage 
differ  according  to  the  *ex. 

30.  They  all  seize  their  prey  with  their   talons ;  some,  (such 
as  the  Falcon,  the  Kite,  &c  )  precipitate  themselves  perpendicu- 
larly upon  the  animals  they  wish  to  possess;  others,   (the  Buz- 
zard and  Goshawks,  for  example)  approach  obliquely  and  attack 
sidewise  only.     They  are,  generally,  silent  "and  very  difficult  to 
tame,  although  some  of  them  can  be  trained  to  hunt  on  the  wing. 

31.  This  tribe,  which  embraces  a  great  number  of  species,  is 
divided  into  two  principal  sections,  namely:  Noble  birds  of  Prey, 
and  Ignoble,  birds  of  Prey,  so   named,    because  the  former  are 
employed  in  falconry,  and  the  latter  are  not;  and  each  one  of 
these  sections  is  sub-divided  in  its  turn,  as  may  be  seen    in  the 
following  table : 

28.  How  docs  ihe  vision  of  Falcons  compare  with  that  of  other  animals  ? 

29.  Upon  what  do  the  Falcons  feed  ? 

30.  How  do  they  by  hold  of  their  prey  ?    Are  Falcons  nuisy  birds  ?    Are 
they  easily  tatnrd  ? 

31.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Falcons  divided?     What  genera  form   the  Noble 
Birds  of  Prey  ?     What  is  the  chief  distinguishing1  feature  of  the  Noble  birds 
«f  Prey  ?     What  genera  belong  to  the  Ignoble  birds  of  Prey  ? 


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38  FALCONS. 


32.  In  the  DIVISION    OF    NOBLE   BIRDS    OP    PUEY,   the  second 
of  the  wing  is  the  longest,  and  only  exceeds  the  first  one  a 

very  little,  which  makes  their  wings  pointed,  and  influences  their 
manner  of  flight  very  much  ;  when  the  air  is  calm,  their  flight  is 
always  very  oblique,  and  to  rise  perpendicularly  they  have  to 
fly  against  the  wind. 

33.  FALCONS    PROPERLY   so  CALLED — Falco, — are  recognised 
by  the  tooth  or  notching  with  which  the  upper  mandible  is  armed 
on  each  side,  near  its  point,  and   by  their  wings  being  almost 
always  as  long  or  longer  than  their  tail.     In  proportion  to  their 
size  they  are  the  most  courageous  of  all  birds  of  prey  ;  a  quality 
which  corresponds  with  the  power  of  their  arms  and  the  strength 
of  their  wings.     They  are  also  the  most  docile   of  the  hunting 
birds,  and  the  most  important  in  the  art  of  falconry,  as  they  are 
taught  to  pursue  the  game,  and  return  when  they  are  called. 

34.  The  principal   species   of   this  genus   are;  the  Common 
Falcnn, — f«/c./  com mn -a is, — which  is  of  the  size  of  a  hen,  and 
inhabits  all  the  northern  part  of  the  globe ;  the  Hobby, — Falco 
subbnteo, — the   Merlin, —  Falco  cesca/on,  and    the    Falco    /itltO' 
falco, — which  inhabit  Europe,  and  when  young  resemble  the 
common  Falcon ;  the  Kestrels,  have  shorter  toes  and  their  flight 
is  not  so  rapid.     The  duration  of  the  life  of  the  Falcon  is  very 
great ;  it  is  stated  that  in  the  year  1793,  a  person  caught,  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  falcon  wearing   a   collar  of  gold,    upon 
which  was  engraved,  this  bird,  in   1610,  belonged  to  James  I, 
King  of  England.     It  was  consequently,  upwards  of  one   hun- 
dred and  eighty  years  old,  and  still  preserved  its  vigour.     The 
flight  of  the  falcon  is  very  rapid  ;  it   commonly  feeds  on   large 
birds,  such  as  pheasants,    pigeons,  ducks,  geese,    &c.,   and  to 
possess  them,  it  rises   above  its  prey,  and  pounces  perpendicu- 
larly upon  it,     This  quality  and  the  facility  with  which  the  com- 
mon falcon  may  be  trained,  caused  it  to  be  much  esteemed  when 
the  great  and  wealthy  were  pleased  to  pursue  game  with  birds,  as 
they  do  now  with  dogs  ;  this  bird  has  given  its  name  to  the  art  of 
hunting  with  birds  of  prey.     The  manner  of  training  these  ani- 
mals was  by  shutting  1  hem  up  from  the  light,    exhausting   their 
strength  by  fatigue,  and  fasting,  and  then   presenting   bait,  and 
accustoming  them  by  degrees  to   pursue  this  or  that  kind  of 
game. 

32.  Which  is  the  longest  quill  in  noble  birds  of  Prey  ? 

33.  What  is  the  distinguishing   mark  of  Falcons   properly   so   called  7 
What  is  their  general  character  ? 

34.  What  are  the  principal  species  of  Falcon  ?   What  is  falconry  ? 


EAGT.FS. 


35.  The  Gerf«ico*«< — Hiero  ak-o, —  have  the  tail  much  longer 
than  the  wings,  which  are  also  large.    Only  one  species  is  known. 

36.  The  Gerjulco  ,  or  Iceland  hnJco>^ — Fa'cn  candicans,  and 
Fa/co  islandiviiis, — is  most  esteemed  of  all  birds  in  falconry.     It 
is   a  fourth   larger   than   the    Falcon,    and   chiefly  inhabits  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe. 

37.  In  the  DIVISION  or  IGNOBLE  BIRDS  or  PREY,  the  beak  has 
no  lateral  tooth  near  its  point,  but  a  simple  scallop  or  festoon, 
and  the  fourth  quill  of  the  wing  is  almost  always   the  longest, 
while  the  first  is  very  short ;  in  consequence  of  this  the   wings 
are  truncate  at  the  extremity,   and   their  flight  is    more   feeble. 
They    have  been   called  ignoble   because   they  could  never  be 
employed  in  falconry. 

38  This  section  is  very  numerous,  and  is  divided,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  into  many  genera,  which  are  sub-divided  again  into 
sub-genera,  many  of  which  are  sufficiently  important  to  be 
noticed  in  this  place. 

39.  The  genus  of  FAGLEP, — ./fyw/A?,—  comprises  the  strongest 
and  most  courageous  birds  of  prey  of  the  great  tribe  of  Falcons, 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  beak ;  it   is  sub-divided 
into  Eagles  properly  so  called,  Fisher- Engles,  Ospreys,  IJarpies,&c. 

40.  EAGLES    PHOPERLY    so   CALLED, — J}<juiln, —  have    the   tarsi 
feathered  to  the  roots  of  the  toes,  and  the  wings  as  long  as  the 
tail.  ( I'late.  3,  /rV/    1)     [Their  vision  is   wonderfully  extensive, 
and  they  are  enabled  to  fix  their  eyes  upon  the  sun,  by  the   aid 
of  the  memhruna  nictitans,   which  lessens   the  intensity   of  the 
light] 

41.  These  birds   are   remarkable  for  the   nobleness  of  their 
bearing,  and  for  their  bold  and  daring  attitude.     They  are  cele- 
brated for  their  courage,  and  as  their  habits  are  always  in  corres- 
pondence with    their   organization,    nature  has  endowed  them 
with   great   strength   and   powerful  arms.      They   are  fond  of 
carnage,  and  in  general  they  prefer  attacking  animals   of  con- 
siderable size:  it  is  only  when  they  are  pressed  by  hunger   that 
they  pursue  small  birds,  and  they  never  eat  carrion,  even  when 
in  a  state  of  absolute  want.     They  generally   live  in  pairs,  but 

35.  How  ore  the  Gerfalcons  distinguished? 

36.  How  many  species  of  Gerfalcons  are  known  ? 

37.  How  are  the  ignoble   birds   of  prey  di.-tinguished  ?     Why   are   the/ 
Called  ignoble? 

38.  Are  the  divisions  of  this  section  numerous? 

39.  How   is  the  genus  of  Eagles  distinguished  ?      What  are  .he  tub. 
genera  ? 

40.  How  are  Eagles  properly  so  called  distinguished  ? 

41.  What  are  the  habits  of  Eagles  ?     Do  they  eat  carrion  I 

4 


40  KAGLES. 


do  not  permit  other  birds  of  prey  to  reside  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
abode  ;  they  do  not  even  permit  their  young  to  share  the  domain 
wherein  they  are  established,  and  drive  them  off  as  soon  as  they 
are  able  to  provide  for  themselves.  The  male  and  female  are 
generally  seen  at  a  short  distance  from  each  other,  and.they  seem 
to  have  a  sort  of  understanding  with  each  other  in  hunting;  it  is 
asserted,  that  one  of  the  two  beats  the  bushes  while  the  other 
awaits  on  some  rock  or  neighbouring  tree,  to  seize  the  startled 
game  in  its  flight.  While  the  female  is  detained  in  the  eyry  by 
the  incubation  of  her  eggs,  or  by  the  cares  required  by  her  young 
the  male  hunts  alone,  and,  as  it  is  the  season  when  game  begins 
to  abound,  he  easily  provides  for  his  own  subsistance  as  well  as 
for  that  of  his  companion.  These  animals  can  endure  very 
long  fasting,  especially  when  captivity  or  maternal  cares  force 
them  to  repose.  A  common  eagle  taken  in  a  snare,  has  been 
known  to  pass  five  weeks  with- nit  taking  any  aliment,  and  not  ap- 
pear enfeebled,  except  during  the  last  eight  days.  The  capacity 
of  their  crop  is  very  considerable,  and  this  pouch  may  serve  as  a 
reservoir  of  food  sufficient  for  several  days. 

42.  Eagles  properly  so  called,  are  found  in   all   parts  of  the 
eastern  continent,  and  some  species  belong  to  New  Holland.     In 
general,  they  inhabit  the  main  land,  and  do  not  establish  them- 
selves either  on  narrow,  peninsulas  or  on  islands,  unless  they  are 
of  great  extent.     They  live  on  mountains  and  ordinarily   con- 
struct their  nests  or  c yi  ies  on  the  highest  and   most   precipitous 
rocks,  or  on  the  platform  of  some  deserted  tower.     These  nests 
are  of  considerable  extent,  and  rest  most  frequently  on  some  flat 
surface  found  amongst  the  rocks ;  they   are  built   of  pieces   of 
wood,  which  are  often  five  or  six  feet  in  length  ;  their  interior  is 
lined    with   moss  and   dry  leaves ;   and  their  height   increases 
every  year  by  the  accumulation  of  the  bones  of  animals  which 
these  birds  bring  to  their  nests.     In  short,  eagles  never  change 
their  eyry ;  the  one  they  build  for  their  first  laying  of  eggs  serves 
them  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives. 

43.  In  the  genus  of  Eagles,  as   well  as  in  all  other  birds  of 
prey,  the  female  is  much  larger   than  the  male,   and   seems  to 
be  also  the  most  courageous.     She  lays  but  two  OF  three   eggs 
every  year,  and  frequently  rears  only  a  single  eagle  at  a  time. 
The  duration  of  incubation,  (at  least  for  the  imperial  eagle,)  is 
thirty  days. 

42.  Where  are  Eagles  found  ?     What  situations  do  they  select   for  their 
nests  ? 

43.  How  does  the  female  differ  from  the  male  Eagles  ?     How  many  eggrs 
does  she  lay  in  a  year  ? 


EAGLES  41 


44.  The  Common  Eaylc, —  l"'alco  /W/CM.V, —  Falc 

Falco  niyer,  (P'ate  3,  fii}.  1.)  which  is  also  called,  yellow  eagle, 
or  black  eagle,  and  which  has  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Koyal  Eagle,  from  which  it  differs  only  in  age,  inhabits  all  the 
great  forests  of  Kurope,  and  is  more  particularly  met  with  in  the 
mountains  of  Sweden,  Scotland,  and  the  Tyrol ;  it  feeds  upon 
lambs  and  fawns,  which  it  carries  off  with  surprising  force,  and 
rarely  attacks  large  birds.  Its  eggs  are  of  a  dirty  white  colour, 
spotted  red. 

45.  The  Imperial  Eafjle, — Falc>*  imperialis,—J2i/HiIa  heliaca, 
— has  a  shorter  body,  and  longer  wings  than  the,  common  eagle  ; 
it  inhabits  the  high,  wooded  mountains  of  the  south  and  east  of 
Europe,  and  is  quite  common  in  Egypt.     It   pursues  deers,   roe- 
bucks and  other  quadrupeds,   from    which  it   tears   enormous 
shreds  and  carries  to  its  eyry ;  it  is  still  more  terrible  to  other 
birds,  and  to  it  are  to   be  attributed  most  of  the  exaggerated 
accounts  of  the  strength,  courage,  and  magnanimity,  which   the 
ancients  gave  of  the  Golden  Eagle. 

4b".  The  FISHER  EAGLES, — Halicetus-) — differ  from  eagles  pro- 
perly so  called  in  the  tarsi,  only  the  upper  half  of  which  are 
invested  with  feathers ;  they  keep  near  the  margins  of  rivers, 
and  the  sea,  and  live  chiefly  on  fishes.  The  species  which  are 
designated  by  the  names  of  (hsifrngvs  and  Pygargus,  are  found 
in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  globe. 

47.  The  ttuld  Eagle,  —  Fulco  leucocepha/us, — inhabits  North 
America,  and  is  constantly  occupied  in  fishing.  It  is  of  a  uniform 
deep  brown  colour,  with  a  white  head  and  tail;  its  beak  is  yellow 
and  it  is  almost  as  large  as  the  common  eagle  of  Europe.  It  is 
the  figure  of  this  bird  that  is  represented  in  the  national  emblems 
of  the  United  States. 

48  The  Ospreys, —  Pandinn, — have  the  beak  and  feet  of  the 
Fisher  Eagles.  Only  one  species  is  known,  which  is  found  along 
the  shores  of  fresh  waters  in  almost  every  part  of  the  globe.  It 
is  the  Fish  Hawk,  or  Usprey, — Falco  kalicetus. 

49.  The  Great  Harpy  of  J9un'rica, — Falco  harpyitr. — Of  all 
birds,  this  possesses  the  most  terrific  beak  and  claws;  it  is  supe- 
rior in  size  to  the  common  eagle.  Such  are  its  powers  that  it  is 
said  to  have  cleft  a  man's  skull  with  its  beak  ;  its  ordinary  food 
is  the  sloth,  and  it  often  carries  off  fawns 

44.  What  aie  the  characters  of  the  common  Eagle  ? 

45.  Where  is  the  Imperial  Eagle  found?     What  are  its  habiU? 

46.  What  are  Fisher-Eagles? 

47.  What  is  the  Ba'd  Eagle? 

48.  Where  are  the  Ospreys  found? 

49.  Wh  t  is  the  character  of  the  American  Harpy  ? 


42  (ZOSriAWKS—  KITES.— BUZZARDS—  HARRIETS. 

50  The  GENUS  OF  GOSHAWKS, — «/?«/?/?•, — comprises  the  6Y>.v- 
baick*  properly  so-called,  and  the  Sparrow-hawks;  they  have 
the  tarsi  scutellated,  (that  is,  armed  in  front  with  large  scaly 
plates,)  and  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  length  of 
this  part  of  the  claw.  Although  cowardly,  they  may  be  employed 
in  falconry. 

5  J .  The  SPARROW-HAWKS, —  AVsws,— have  the  tarsi  higher  than 
the  Goshawks;  but  the  transitions  from  one  division  to  the  other 
are  almost  insensible. 

52.  The  KITES, —  Milvus, — have  a  forked  tail  and  excessively 
Jong  wings,  which  makes   their  flight  exceedingly  rapid  ;  their 
tarsi  are  short  and  their  nails  weak  ;  their  beak  (Plate  3.  /if/.  8.) 
is  disproportioned  to  their  size,  and  they  are  the  most  cowardly 
birds  of  this  whole  tribe.     The  cnnmon  kife  of  France, —  Fatco 
in  j/tws, — of  all  birds,  sustains  itself  the  longest  and   most    tran- 
quilly ;  the  elegance  of  its  flight  has   been  celebrated   by   poets. 
Jt  seldom  attacks  any  thing  but  reptiles. 

53.  The  BUZZARDS, —  Rutev,—  have  very  long  wings,  but  their 
tail  is  equal,  their  feet  are  strong1,  and  their  beak  is  curved  from 
its  base.     The  only    species   found    in    France   is  the  Common 
Buzzard, — Falco  buteo.     This  bird  dwells  throughout  the  year 
in  the  forests,  and  appears  stupid  and  idle ;  it   often  remains  for 
several  hours  together  perched  upon  the  same  tree ;  it  does  not 
seize  its  prey  upon  the  wing,  but  awaits  on  a  hillock  of  earth,  a 
bush  or  a  tree,  from  which  it  pounces  upon  its  victim ;  it   feeds 
on  young  hares,  partridges,  young  birds,  and,  when  this  game 
fails,  even  on  toads,  serpents,  grasshoppers,  &c.     The  nest  of  the 
Buzzard  is  built  of  small  branches  and  lined  inside  with  wool  or 
other  soft  substances ;  these  birds  lay  two  or  three  eggs,  which 
are  whitish,  spotted  yellow ;  the  mother  takes  care  of  her  young 
for  a  longer  time  than  any  other  bird   of  prey,  and  it  is  stated, 
that  the  male  continues  to  feed  them  after  its   female  has   been 
killed. 

54.  The  HARRIERS. — Circus, — differ  from  the  Buzzards  in  their 
more  elevated  tarsi,  and  by  a  sort  of  collar  formed,  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  by  the  ends  of  the  feathers  that  cover  their   ears. 
There  are  three  species  in  France,  namely;  the  Falco  pygargus 
or   bird    of  Saint  Martin,  which  builds  every  where,  and  keeps 
very   much  in  the  fields ;  the   /-'a/co  cineraceus,  which  has  the 

50.  What  birds  are  comprised  in  the  genus  of  Goshawks  ? 

51.  H  w  are  the  Sparrowhawks  distinguished  from  the  Goshawks? 

52.  Flow  are  Kites  characterised  ? 

53.  How  are  Buzzards  distinguished  ?     What  are  their  habits? 

54.  How  do  Hairicrs  differ  from  Buzzards  ? 


HONEY-BUZZARDS.— SECRETARY 43 

same  habits,  and  the  Fa/en  cEniyinosus,  which  keeps  within  the 
reach  of  water  courses,  and  feeds  on  reptiles. 

55.  The  HoNKY-BuzzAKns, —  /Vrw/s, — are    distinguished  from 
•all  the  rest  of  the  tribe  of  falcons  by  the  feathers  which  cover  the 
space  between  the  eye  and  beak,  which  space  in  all  other  birds  of 
this  tribe  is  ordinarily  naked,  and  simply  furnished  with  a  few- 
hairs.     The    (Common    H -ney- Buzzard, — Falcu  upiut  rus, — feeds 
on  inserts,  and  principally  on  bees  and  wasps. 

56.  Many  naturalists  also  place  in   the   tribe   of  Falcons,  the 
MESSENGER  or  SECRETARY — St'rp<>nturi>is,  or  (Jypoyeianu* — a  bird 
which  inhabits  the  so  :th  of  Africa,  and  which   is  very  remark- 
able for  the  extraordinary  length  of  its  tarsi;  but  it  differs  too 
much  from  other  birds  of  prey,  to  be  arranged  in  the  same  tribe 
as  the  preceding,  and  should  constitute  by  itself  a  fourth  division 
of  the  family  of  Diurnae. 

57.  The  Secretary,  —  Fa  ten  serpentftrins,  ••  inhabits    the   dry 
and  open  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the   Cape   of  Good    Hope, 
where  it  hunts  reptiles  on  foot ;  its  daws  consequently   become 
much  worn.     "I  perceived  one  day,"  says  M.  Smith,  "a  Secre- 
tary that  made  two  or  three  turns  on  the  wing,  near  to  where  I 
was.     He  soon  settled,  and  I  saw  that  he  examined  very  atten- 
tively some  object  near  the  plare  where   he  alighted.     Having 
cautiously  approached,  he  extended  one  wing  which  he  constantly 
agitated.     I  then  discovered  a  serpent  of  large  size,  elevating  its 
head,  and  seemingly  awaiting  the  advance  of  the  bird  to  strike 
him  ;  but  a  quick  blow  of  the  wing  of  the  Secretary  soon  turned 
it  over :  the  bird  appeared  to  wait  till  the  serpent  should  rise  in 
order  to  strike  again,  but  approached,  and  seizing  it  in  his  claws 
and  beak,  rose  perpendicularly  into  the  air,  from  whence  he  let  it 
fall,  and  thus  finished  the  killing,  and   afterwards  disposed  of  it 
in  perfect  security." 

FAMILY  OF  NOCTURNAL  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 
58  The  birds  of  prey  of  the  family  of  nncturnce,  have  a  very 
large  head  and  a  very  short  neck,  (P.afe  3,  fiy  2.  and  5.) ;  the 
eyes  are  directed  forward  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  fringed 
feathers,  the  anterior  of  which  cover  the  cere  of  the  beak,  and 
the  posterior,  the  opening  of  the  ear ;  the  pupil  is  very  large  and 
the  sight  is  weak.  The  external  toe  can  be  directed  forwards  or 

55.  In  what  particulars  do  the  Honey. Buzzards  differ  from  other  birds  of 
the  tribe  of  Falcons  '( 

56.  Does  the  Secretary  properly  belong  to  the  trihe  of  Falcons? 

57.  Where  is  the  Secretary  found  ?     Wkat  ore  its  hahits? 

58.  What  are   the   zoological  characters  of  the   birds  of  the   family    of 
Nocturn®  ?     What  is  the  character  of  the  pupil  ? 

4* 


<1 NOCTURNAL  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

oackwards  at  will.  The  apparatus  of  flight  is  not  strong,  the 
fourchette  is  weak,  and  the  feathers  are  armed  with  soft  beard, 
and  are  covered  with  a  very  fine  down ;  the  gizzard  is  somewhat 
muscular. 

59.  These  birds  which  are  often  designated  under  the  collec- 
tive name  of  OWLS,  —  Strix, — are  blinded   by   broad   day,   and 
only  see  we'll  in  the  twilight,  or  at  night  when  it  is  not  very  dark, 
the  time  they  choose  for  hunting;   and  as   their   silky  feathers 
permit  them  to  fly  without  noise,  it   is  very  easy  for  them   to 
obtain  possession  cf  birds  and  small  mammals  upon  which  they 
suddenly  pounce;  there  are  some  species  that  hunt  even  in  the 
day  time,  but  during  this  period  they  generally  retire  into  hollow 
trees  or  rents  in  walls ;  sometimes  they  lay  squat  on   branches 
of  trees,  and  then  all  the  little  birds,  of  which  they  are  the  terror 
during  twilight,  come  to  tease  and  insult  them.     During  the  night 
they  often  utter  plaintive  cries,  which  the  vulgar  regard   as   un- 
fortunate omens ;  but  in  reality  these  birds  are  more  useful  than 
injurious  to   agriculture,   on    account  of  the  number   of  small 
mammals  of  the  order  of  rodentia  which   they  destroy.     It   is 
probable,  the  large  size  of  the  head,  and  their  habitual  tranquility, 
obtained  for  them  the  reputation  for  wisdom  which  they  enjoyed 
among  the  ancients 

60  All  the  nocturnal  birds  of  prey  resemble  each  other  very 
much,  and  the  differences  observed  pass  from  one  to  the  other  by 
such  insensible  intermediate  shades  that  it  is  difficult  to  establish 
good  generic  differences  in  this  family. 

til.  OWLS  PRORERLY  so  CALLED, — Eared  Owls, — O/?/.v, — (Plate 
3,  fig.  2.)  have  the  disk  of  fringed  feathers  which  surrounds  the 
eyes,  very  complete,  and  itself  bordered  by  a  circle  of  scaly 
feathers ;  they  have  moveable  tufts  half  the  length  of  the  head, 
the  external  ear  very  large  and  furnished  in  front  with  a  mem- 
branous operculum,  and  the  feet  are  feathered  to  the  nails.  The 
common  owl, — Strix  O/MS, — is  frequent  in  France  and  the  United 
Stales ;  its  length  from  the  top  of  its  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail 
is  thirteen  or  fourteen  inches,  and  its  plumage  is  yellow  with 
brown  spots.  It  ordinarily  inhabits  forests,  and  establishes  its 
retreat  in  caverns,  deserted  houses,  in  ruins,  and  during  the 
whoJe  night  utters  sad  and  plaintive  groans  ;  it  often  takes  pos- 
session of  nests  abandoned  by  crows,  ducks,  &c. 

59  Why  are  Owls  designated  as  nocturnal  birds  of  prey  ?  Upon  what 
do  they  feed  ? 

60.  Are  the  generic  differences  found  in  Nocturnal    birds    of  prey  easily 
recognised  ? 

•*  61.  How  are  O;vls  properly  so  called  char_ctemed  ? 


OWLS.  45 


62.  The  HOWLERS, —  Vlula, — only  differ  from  the  preceding 
owls  in  the  absence  of  the  tufts  of  feathers,  which  in  common 
language,  are  sometimes  called  horns. 

03.  The  SCREECH  OWLS, — Strix, — resemble  owls  properly  so 
called  in  the  disposition  of  their  ears,  but  are  distinguished  from 
them  by  the  beak,  which  is  elongated  and  curved  only  at  the  ex- 
tremity, while  in  the  other  nocturnae  it  is  arched  from  its  base. 
They  are  without  tufts,  and  instead  of  feathers,  have  only  hairs  on 
the  toes.  The  common  species  in  France,  known  as  the  screech 
owl  (';//VaiY,)  is  of  all  the  owls,  most  especially  regarded  by  the 
people  as  a  bird  of  evil  omen ;  its  plumage  is  yellow,  shaded 
with  ash  colour  or  brown  above,  and  prettily  spotted  black 
and  white.  It  is  found  in  Asia  and  America  as  well  as  in  Europe. 

64.  The  HOOTING  OWLS, — .S//r///M/w, — differ  from   the  screech 
owls  in  their  auditory  conch  which  is  reduced  to  an  oval  cavity, 
that  does  not  occupy  the  half  of  the  height  of  the  granium  ;  their 
feet  are  feathered  down  to  the  nails 

65.  The  Dues,  or  HORNED  OWLS, —  Bubo, — have  tufts  like  the 
eared  owls,  and  an  auditory  conch  as  small  as  the  hooting  owls, 
but    they    have   the    disk    of   feathers    around  the   eyes    less 
marked   than   the  preceding  owls.     The  Grand  Due,  or  Great 
Horned  Owl  of  naturalists, — Strix  bubo, — is  about  two  feet  long, 
and  is  the  largest  of  all  the  nocturnae ;  it  is  common  in  the  great 
forests  of  the  eastern  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  also    met  with  in 
France.     Its  food  consists  ordinarily  of  moles  and  small  animals 
of  the  order  rodentia,   but  we  are  assured   that  it  sometimes 
attacks  young  roe-bucks,  and  it  often  contends   with   buzzards, 
and  carries  off  their  prey.     The  great  horned  owl  of  the  United 
States, — Bubo  virginianus, — which  is  found  in  all   parts  of  our 
country,  feeds  on  the  gallinaceous  birds,  domestic  poultry,  hares, 
opossums,  &c. 

66  In  former  times,  this  owl  was  employed  in  falconry  to 
attract  the  kite ;  they  tied  a  fox's  tail  to  the  Due  to  render  its 
figure  still  more  extraordinary ;  it  flew  even  with  the  ground 
and  alighted  in  the  fields  without  perching  on  trees ;  the  kite, 
which  perceived  it  from  a  distance,  came  and  approached  the 
Due,  or  Great  Horned  Owl,  not  to  attack,  but  rather  to  examine 
it.  and  kept  near  it  long  enough  to  be  taken  by  the  hunters  or  by 
the  birds  of  prey  which  they  let  slip  in  pursuit. 

62.  How  do  the  Elowlers  differ  from  Owls  properly  <-o  called? 
(53.  How  are  Sureich  Owls  characterised  ? 

64.  In  what  particulars  do  the  Hooting  Owls  differ  from  the  Screech  Owls  t 

65.  How    are   the    Horned   Owls  characterised?      Where   is  the    Greal 
Horned  Owl  found  ?     Up<  n  what  does  it  feed  ? 

66.  In  what  way  was  'h-  Great  Horned  Owl  employed  in  Falconry? 

2A 


46  ORDER  OF  PASSERINE. 


07.  The  owls  of  the  genera  NOCTUA  and  SCOPS,  have  the  open- 
ing of  the  ear  larger  than  ordinary  birds,  and  the  disk  of  feathers 
around  the  eyes  smaller  and  less  complete  than  in  all  the  pre- 
ceding owls.  These  characters  coincide  with  the  peculiarities  of 
their  habits,  which  bring  them  near  to  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey. 
In  fact,  many  owls  see  sufficiently  well  in  the  day  to  distinguish 
and  pursue  their  prey.  The  Scops  have  the  heads  furnished  with 
tufts.  There  is  one  species  found  in  France,  whose  plumage  is 
ash  colour,  spotted  black. 


LESSON     IV. 

ORDER  or  PASSERINE. — Zoological  Characters. — Habits — Divi- 
sion iu to  five  fa  m Hies. 

FAMILY  OP  DENTIROSTRES. — Shrikes  — Flycatchers. —  Coti/igas. — 
Hlackbirds. —  Thrushes.  —  Wafer-thrushes.  — Orioles.  — Lyres. 
—  Warblers,  (such  as  the  Nightingales,  Linnets,  and  Wrens.) 

FAMILY  OF  FISSIROSTRES.  —  (Swallow*) — Habits. — (Swallow,  pro- 
perly so  called,  Martin.') — Goatsuckers. —  Habits. 

FAMILY  OF  CONNIROSTRES. —  Larks. —  Titmouse  —  Buntings. — 
Sparrows.  —  Crows,  (Crow  properly  so  called,  Jackdaw,  Mag- 
pic,  Jay.} — Birds  of  Paradise. 


ORDER    OF    PASSERINJE. 


1.  This  order  includes  all  birds  that  are  neither  swimmers, 
waders,  climbers,  rapaceous,  nor  gallinaceous  ;  that  is,  it  contains 
all  birds  that  are  not  assigned  to  the  other  five  orders ;  we  find  its 
characteristics, therefore, are  purely  negative;  yet, although  we  can- 
not unite  all  the  species  that  belong  to  it  under  a  common  descrip- 
tion, they  nevertheless  naturally  resemble  each  other  in  the  totality 
or  assemblage  of  their  organization.  The  Passerin*  have  neither 
the  violence  of  the  birds  of  prey,  nor  the  fixed  regimen  of  the 
gallinaceous  or  aquatic  birds ;  insects,  fruits  and  grains  consti- 
tute their  food,  which  consists  more  exclusively  of  grain,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  largeness  of  their  beak,  and  more  exclusively  of  in- 
sects as  it  is  more  slender;  and  those  that  have  strong  beaks  pursue 

67.  How  are  the  genera  of  Noctua  and  Scops  characterised  ?  Are  all 
Owlfl  incapable  of  seeing  in  the  Havlitjht  ? 

1.  What  are  the  characters  which  dis'inguish  the  Passer inse  from  other 
orders  of  birds?  Upon  what  do  they  feed?  What  is  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  their  toes  ? 


FAMILY  OF  DENTIROSTRES  47 

even  small  birds.  The  proportional  length  of  their  wings,  and  the 
extent  of  their  flight  are  as  variable  as  their  habits.  They  have 
four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  and  ocrassionally,  two  be 
fore  and  one  behind,  and  sometimes  all  four  are  in  front;  but 
there  aie  nrwi  tn:o  before  ami  tiro  behind,  as  in  the  next  ORDER  ; 
and  the  middle  toe  is  joined  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  to  the 
external  toe  by  monns  of  a  membrane. 

2.  The  order  of  Passerinae  is  very  numerous,  and  is  divided 
into  five  families,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
characters : 

(Families.) 
The  external      f     Notched  on   both  sides    near    its  )  ^ 


toe  shorter  th  in 
the  middle  one, 
and  tree  for  the 
greater  part  of 

its  lonjith. 

Superior    man- 

dible, 


The  external  toe  almost  as  lon^  as  the  middle  on^,  t  >  ) 
which  it  is  unite  J  as  far  as  to  the  penultimate  articu-  >  SYNDAGTYLA 
lalion.  \ 

FAMILY  OF  DENTIROSTRES. 


point. 

f     Short,  wide,  flattened,  ) 

horizontally,   and    very  >  FISSIROSTRES. 
Without    I  open.  \ 

a         ^j 
notch.  Strong  and  conic  il,      J-CONIROSTRES. 

^.     Slender  and  elongated 


3.  This  family  includes  those  Passerinae  only  that  have  the 
beak  notched  on  both  sides  near  the  point;  they  are  all  insecti- 
vorous, and  most  of  them  also  eat  berries  and  other  tender 
fruits  They  have  been  classed  according  to  the  general  form  of 
their  beak,  and  in  this  way  divided  into  many  tribes,  the  chief  of 
which  may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters  : 

2.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  order  of  Passerines  divided  ?     What  is 
characteristic  of  the  Dentirostes?     How  are  the  Fissirostres  distinguished? 
How  do  the  Conirosters  differ  from  the  Fissirostres  ?  What  is  the  character 
of  the  heak  in  th  •  Tenuirostres  ?     Ho.v  are   the  Sand  c'ylse  distinguished 
from  the  other  four  families  of  Passerines  ? 

3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Dentirostres  ?     (Answered  in 
the  Tattle.}  How  are  the  Shrikes  recognised  ?     By  what  characters  are  the 
Flycatchers  known  ?     How   are  the  Contingas    distinguished  ?     How   are 
Tanagers  characterised  ?     What  are  the  characters    of  the    Ant-catchers? 
How  are  the  Thrushes  distinguished?     By  what  are  the  Orioles  known? 
How  are  the  Warblers  recognised?     In  what  tribes  of  the  family  of  Denti. 

osi«i«  is  the  external  toe  free  ?     How  are  Cocks  of  the  Rock  known? 


DKNTIIIOSTRKS, 
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SHRIKES.— FLY-CATCHERS— COTING  AS.  4!» 

4.  The  SHRIKES, — fjinhis, — have  a  moderate,  but  strong  beak, 
which  is  straight  from  its  origin,  and  very  compressed  ;  the  upper 
mandible  is  strongly  curved  towards  the  point  where  it  forms  a 
hook,  and  is  armed  with  a  deep  notch ;  its  base  is  provided  with 
stiff  hairs,  and  is  destitute  of  cere.     Though  si. all  in  size,  thrse 
birds    are   full    of  courage ;  they  contend   with    birds    of  prey, 
and,  like  them,  1  v ••  by  rapine.     They  fe  d  on  insects  and  sma'l 
birds,  and  always  inhabit  the  woods  and  bashes  on  the   planes; 
they  live  in  families,  and  fly  irregularly,  and  p  eeipitately,  utter- 
ing shrill  cries.     There  are  five  species  in  Europe,  and  several  in 
America.     The  common  or  G  eut  Shrike, — Lunitis  e.icubitoi; — 
which  is  ash  coloured  above,  white  beneath,  and  of  the  size  of  a 
Thrush;  and   the   Butcher    Bird, — Lauius    ntlintio, — which   is 
smaller  than  the  others,  has  the  back  and    wings   fawn   colour; 
this  last  bird  destroys  a  great  many  small  animals,   birds  and 
young  toads,   as   well  as   a  number  of  insects,  grasshoppers, 
beetles,  &c.,  which  it  has  the  habit  of  sticking  on  the  thorns  of 
bushes,  in  order  to  devour  them  at  leisure,  or  to  find  them  again 
when  wanted.     This  little  Shrike  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
spring,  and  quits  France  and  the  United  States  in  the  autumn. 

The  cassicam  and  vanyus,  and  several  other  genera  are  grouped 
in  this  tribe,  and  have  similar  habits. 

5.  The  FLY-CATCHERS, —  J/uxc/capa, — are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.     Their  beak  is  moderate,  strong,  and  compressed  to- 
wards the  point,  which  is  curved,  and  deeply  notched  ;  the  base 
is  furnished  with  long,  stiff  hairs,  that  cover  the  nostrils,    which 
are  lateral  and  oval.     These  birds  are  travellers.     They  feed  on 
small   birds,  or  on  insects,  which  they  catch  on  the  wing;  they 
alight  on  trees  in  the  forests.     Europe  possesses   a   great  many 
species. 

6.  The  name  of  Tyrant, — Tyrannus,—  is  given  to  those  fly- 
catchers of  America,  that  have  a  strong  beak;  other  birds  of  this 
division  on  the  contrary,  have  a  very  slender  beak.  They  defend 
their  young  even  from  the  eagle,  and  drive  all  birds  of  prey  from 
their  nest.     The  larger  species  feed  on  small  birds,  and  do  not 
always  despise  carrion. 

7.  The   COTINGAS,   or   Crown  Birds. — Jlmpvlis, — are  for   the 
most  part,  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their   plumage.     Their 
beak  is  short,  slightly  depressed,  a  little  convex  above,  and  sud- 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  Shrikes?  What  are  their  habits  ?  L'pon 
what  do  they  feed  ?  From  what  circuuist  ince  dots  tiie  Butcher  bird  derive 
its  name  ? 

5  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Flycatchers  ?     On  what  do  they  feed  7 

6  What  are  Tyrants?     What  are  their  habits? 
1    What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cotingas? 

2A* 


50 TANAGERS.—  THRUSHES—  BLACKBIRDS. 

denly  flexed  at  the  point ;  their  nostrils  are  half  closed  by  a 
membrane,  and  covered  in  a  degree  by  the  hairs  of  the  face; 
their  feet  are  moderate:  all  the  species  belong  to  South  America 
The  plumage  of  the  male  is,  in  general,  adorned  with  the  richest 
tints  of  purple  and  azure;  but  these  birds  are  not  in  all  their 
beauty  except  in  the  spring,  for  during  the  rest  of  the  year  their 
tints  are  gray  or  brown. 

8.  The  C '.tat/mem, —  Bomhycilla, — have  the  head  ornamented 
with  a  toupet  of  feathers.     There  is  one  species,  the  Bohemian 
Chatterer, — rfmpelix  yarnd  is, — that  visits  Furope  in  flocks,   at 
long  and  irregular  intervals,  from  which  circumstance,  its  presence 
for  a  long  time  was  considered  as  an  evil  omen.     It  is  thought  to 
inhabit  the  extreme  north.    The  flesh  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. 
The   Cedar  bird,   or    Ckf.rry  Bird, —  Homoycilla  carolinensis, — 
is  found  throughout  the  American  continent.     Some  of  them  re- 
main in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  during  the  winter. 

9.  The  TANAGERS,  —  Tanagm, — are   small    birds,   remarkable 
for  the  most  part,  for  the  varied  colour  of  their  plumage.     They 
resemble  the  Finches  in  their  habits,  and  feed  on  grain,    as   well 
as  on  berries  and  insects.     The  Summer  tted   Bird, — Tanagra 
cestiva, — is  of  a  vermillion  red.     It    passes  the   greater  part  of 
the  year  in  the  tropical  America.     It  is  met  with  in  the  sandy, 
barren  forests  of  New  Jersey,  in  small  numbers. 

10.  The  THRUSHES, —  surdns, — have  a  moderate  beak  with  a 
sharp  compressed  point,  but  not  forming  a  hook,  and  having  the 
notches  not  so  deep  as  in  the  Shrikes  ;  they  are  more  frugivorous. 
It  is  to  be  r?n.arked  also,  that  their  nostrils  are  half  closed  by  a 
naked  membrane,  and  the  tarsi  are  longer  than  the  middle  toe. 
Some  remain  in  the  country  where  they  are  born  ;  others  travel 
in  numerous  flocks.     The  flesh  of  most  of  these   birds   is  much 
esteemed. 

1 1.  We  apply  the  name  of  Thrushes  properly  so  called  to  those 
species  in   which  the  colours  are  uniform  or  distributed  in  large 
masses,   and    we  call  those  Tlirmkt'*  in  which  the  plumage  is 
dappled,  that  is,  marked  with  small  black  and  brown  spots. 

12.  The  European  blackbird, —  Turdus  merula, — is  found  in 
France  throughout  the  year  ;  the  male  is  entirely  black  with   a 
yellow  beak,  and  the  female  is  brownish.     These  birds  are    the 
first  to  hail  with  their  songs  the   return  of  spring ;  heard   at   a 

8.  Whpt  are  the  Chatterers  ? 

9.  What  are  Tanagers  ? 

10.  What  are  the  characters  of  Thrushes  ? 

11.  How  are  the  two  kinds  of  Thrushes  distinguished  ? 

12.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  European  Blackbird  ? 


THRUSHES. 


distance  they  are  very  agreeable;  they  possess  the  power  of 
p"  ising  from  the  lowest  if  the  highest  tones.  In  captivity  their 
voice  loses  its  brilliancy  and  becomes  even  hoarse  and  false. 
This  blackbird  lovts  solitude;  it  only  keeps  in  the  thickest  and 
most  distant  copses.  It  feeds  on  worms  and  insects,  and  very 
adroitly  breaks  snail  shells  against  rocks  or  stones.  The  female 
constructs  her  nest  with  great  art,  which  is  well  cushioned  on  the 
inside  and  covered  on  the  outside  with  grass.  She  ordinarily  lays 
four  or  five  blue  eggs,  covered  with  brown  spots. 

13.  The  Grive,or  Common  Thrush, — 7Yr«i/.v  musicus, — some- 
what smaller  than  the  preceding,  is  brown  on  the  back,   reddish 
yellow  with  black  spots  on  the  neck  and   breast,  white  on  the 
belly  and  flanks,  with  black  spots ;  the  wings  are  brown  above, 
yellow  beneath  ;  the  beak  is  brown,  and  the  tarsi  are  brownish 
gray.     It  is  met  with  in  France  only  as   a   bird  of  passage;  it 
arrives  there  in  great  flocks  at  the  end  of  September,  and  sojourns 
nearly  a  month  ;  then  it  returns  in  March  and  April  to  disappear 
again  in  May.     A  few  individuals  however,  remain,   and  build 
on  low  trees  or  bushes  ,  they  lay  two  or  three  times  a  year,  from 
four  to  six  eggs  each  time.     The  song  of  the  Thrush  is  agreeable, 
and  its  flesh  is  delicate  ;  it  announces  the  return  of  spring,   and 
remains  during  three  quarters  of  the  year.     It  is   often   heard 
when  the  skies  are  heavy  with  clouds ;  which   circumstance  has 
gained  for  it,  in  some  countries,  the  title  of  bird  of  storms.   When 
this  Thrush  is  disturbed,  his  h  arse  and  noisy  song  seems  to  be  a 
mixture  of  warbling  and  cries.     In    its   ordinary  condition,  its 
gammut  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  scale  of  soft  and  grave  tones:  it 
often  sings  many  hours  together  without  the  slightest  interruption. 
When  reared  with  the  Linnet  and  Nightingale,  it  seems  to  study 
their  song,  and  ends  by  appropriating  it.     The  .American  Kobin 
or  Migrating  Thrush,—  Tt<rdns  miaiatorius,  -  is  found  in  summer 
throughout  the  North  American  continent.  The  Kobin  Red-breast, 
which  is  said  to  have  covered,  with  a  leafy  shroud,  the  lost   and 
wandering  "  babes  in  the  wood,"  is  held  in  universal  respect.  Its 
song,  however,  has  not  the  compass  and  variety  of  the  preceding 
species. 

14.  The  Mi&sle  Thrush,— Turdus  viscivorvs, — the  Zzlome, — 
Turdus  pilaris,— and  the    Mads,—  Turdvs  ilia  ens,— are   three 
other  species  of  Thrush  which  are  also  found  in  Europe. 

15.  The  Mocking  Bird,- Tiirdn* ;  pnlyy lottos,— an   American 
bird,  celebrated  for  the  astonishing  facility  with  which  it   ur^ 

13.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Grivc  or  Common  Thrush  ? 

14.  What  other  Thrushes  are  found  in  Europe? 

15.  What  is  the  Mocking  bird  ? 

5 


52 WATER.QUSELS.— OR  IOLES  — LYR  ES. 

hesitatingly  imitates  all  the  sounds  it  hears,  also  belongs   to   the 
tribe  of  Thrushes. 

16  The  WATER  THRUSHES, — Cinclus, — have  a  cutting,  straight, 
elevated  beak,  compressed  and  rounded  towards  the  end,  with 
the  point  of  the  upper  mandible  bent  over  the  lower  one.  There 
is  but' one  species  in  Europe,  which  has  the  singular  habit  of 
descending  into  the  water,  without  swimming,  but  walking  about 
the  bottom  in  search  of  small  animals  upon  which  it  feeds.  The 
*ftni  ncdit  Water  ()u*clt  or  Dipper, —  (Jinclus  Jluieriranns, —  is 
cinereous  gray,  with  a  blackish  brown  head  and  neck.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  European  species  by  the  absence  of  the 
white  on  the  chin  and  throat.  Of  the  particular  habits  of  this: 
bird  little  is  yet  known. 

17.  The  ANT-CATCHERS,  —  Mi/othera, — so  called  because  they 
live  chiefly  on  ants,  are  recognised  by  their  long  legs  and  short 
tail ;  they  are  found  on  botii  continents. 

18.  The  ORIOLES, — Oriuhis, — resemble  the  thrushes  very  much, 
but  their  beak  is  a  little  stronger,  their  legs  are  shorter  and  their 
wings  a  little  longer  in  proportion 

19.  The    European   OHote,    or    Golden    Thrush*   the   Yellow 
Tkru&k  of  the  Germans, —  Oriotusfjalbufa, — is  of  nearly  the  same 
size  as  the  thrush,  (nine  or  ten  inches  long,  and  the  spread  of  the 
wings  about  sixteen  )  The  male  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow;  the  wings, 
the  tail  and  a  spot  between  the  eye  and  beak  are  black,  and  the 
end  of  the  tail  is  yellow  ;  but  during  the  first  two  years  of  life,  like 
the  female  at  all  times,  he  has  an  olive  in  place  of  the  yellow,  and 
brown  in  place  of  the  black  colour.     This  bird  suspends  its  nest, 
which  is  very  artfully  constructed,  from  the  branches  of  trees;  in 
the  summer  it  eats  cherries  and  other  Iruits,  but  in  the  spring  it 
feeds  on  insects :  it  remains  in  Europe  only   during   the    warm 
season,  and  goes  to  Africa  to  pass  the    winter.     It  migrates    in 
companies  of  five  or  six.     In  the  summer,  when  it  has    become 
fat,  its  flesh  is  good  to  eat,  and  were  it  not  so  difficult  to  rear,  it 
would  be  the  ornament  of  our  cages  for  its  beauty.     The  Lia/ti- 
more    Oriole,    or    Gollcn    kolthi, —  Oriulus    bultimore, — Icterus 
baltimnre, — comes  amongst  us  from  its  winter  retreats  in  South 
America,  about  the  first  week  in  May.     It  bears  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  preceding. 

20.  The  LYRBS, —  l/teura,  —  have  been  placed  with  the  gallina- 
ceous birds  by  some  naturalists  who  were  more  struck  with  their 

16.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Water  Thrushes? 

17.  How  aie  liie  Ant-catchers  fecpgniaed? 

18.  What  are  the  characters  at'  the  Orioles  ? 

19.  What  art-  the  oh  iruct<»rs  of  the  European  Oriole  ?  What  are  Its  habitu  » 

20.  What  are  the  Lyres  ?     From  what  do  they  take  their  name  T 


WARBLERS.— NIG HTIXG  \L  E. 53 

large  size  than  the  disposition  of  their  feet  and  other  characters  ; 
bnt  in  reality  these  birds  approach  much  nearer  to  the  thrushes, 
from  which  they  scarcely  differ  in  the  form  of  their  beak.  They 
are  distinguished  by  the  singular  conformation  of  the  tail  of  the 
male  bird,  the  different  feathers  of  which  exactly  resemble  a 
Lyre.  These  birds  belong  to  New  Holland;  only  one  species  is 
known. 

21.  The  WARBLERS,-— r Motacitt(i, — are  extremely  numerous  in 
species,  which  are  found  in  all  ountries.     They  have  a  straight, 
slender  beak,  in  the  form  of  a  bodkin,  higher  than  it  is  broad  at 
the  base;  the  point  of  the  upper  mandible  is  often  notched,  and 
the  lower  one  is  straight ;  the  nostrils  are  half  closed  by  a  mem- 
brane; the  tarsi  are  longer  than  the  middle  toe.     Birds   of  this 
genus  are  emphatically  singers ;  they  are  almost   all  migratory, 
and  insectivorous.     They   are   divided   into  many   sub-genera, 
among  which  we  may  mention  : 

22.  The  Tiaquets, —  .SVu/'co/</, — are   lively    birds   that    stand 
tolerably    high    on   their   legs;  the  French   species  build  on  the 
ground  and  feed  exclusively  on  insects :  such    are   the    Common 
TrtHjtiet, — Motacilla  rubicula, — and  the  Wheat  Ear, — Motavilla 
ceii  tit  lie. 

23.  The  Rubifittes,  —Sylvia, — live  on  insects,  worms  and  ber- 
ries; they  are  solitary,  and  generally  build  in  holes;  the  Stone,' 
clutt, —  Ylotai'illu  rubicola, — belongs  to  this  sub-genus. 

24.  In  the  division  of  Fauv&trs, — Curnicn, — the  beak  is  more 
slender  than  in  the  trnqueMcs,  or  rnbiett*s.     The  most  interesting 
species   of   this   little   group   is   the    Mi-jhHitga  e,  —  Mntndlla 
lnscinia,—  the  plumage  of  which  is  reddish    brown  above,  and 
whitish  gray  beneath,  the  tail  being  a  little  red.     This  bird,  whose 
song    is  so   celebrated,  never  lives  in  flocks.     The  female  con- 
structs her  nest,  in  the  foliage,  of  straw  and  moss;  she  ordinarily 
lays  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and  four  or  five  eggs  on  each  occa- 
sion.    While  she  is  sitting,  the  male,  perched  upon  a  neighbour- 
ing branch,  endeavours  to  relieve  the  weariness  of  her   task  by 
the  harmony  of  his  voice;  if  an  enemy  appro  ich,    he   continues 
to  sing,  and  his  interrupted  accents  tell  his  companion  all  she  has 
to  fear.     In  the  silence  of  the  night,  when  all  other  birds  have 
suspended  their  concerts,  the  melodious  voice  of  the  Nightingale 
alone  is  heard  ;  and  the  variety,  the  sweetness  and   harmony   of 
liis  notes  place  him  in  the  first  rank  of  singing  birds. 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Warblers? 
2V.  What  are  the  Traquets? 

23.  Whnt  are  the  habits  of  the  Rubicftes  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  the  Nightingale' 


54  WRENS.  -TITLARKS. 


25.  The  Faiivette, — Mntacilla  orphea, —  which  is  ashy  brown 
above,  whitish  beneath,  is  common  in   Kurope,    and   particularly 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  France,  which  it  leaves    in    flocks, 
about  the  middle  of  autumn,  to  return  in  the  spring.     It  feeds  on 
insects  and  soft  fruits,  and  makes  its  nest  in  the  bushes  or  reeds  ; 
the  male  has  a  strong,  sonorous  voice,  which  is  not  disagreeable. 
Its  song,  says  Buffon,  somewhat  resembles  that   of  the  Nightin- 
gale, and  is   enjoyed  for  a  long  time ;  for,  many  weeks  after  the 
songster  of  the  spring-time  is  hushed,  the  woods  every  where  re- 
sound with  the  song  of  thefauvette;  its  voice  is    smooth,   pure, 
and  light,  and  its  succession  of  modulations,  though  of  small  ex- 
tent, are  agreeable,  flexible,  and  graduated 

26.  The  Wrens, —  liiyi/vs, — are  little  birds  that  keep  on  trees, 
and  there  pursue  gnats.     The   lioitelet,  or  Kinglet, — Motacilta 
regains, — is  the  smallest  of  European  birds;  the  head  of  the  male 
is  adorned  with  a  small  yellow  tuft  bordered  with  black. 

27.  These  birds  possess  a  great  deal   of  activity  and  agility ; 
they  are  almost  always  in  motion ;  they  leap  from  branch  to  branch, 
climb  trees  on  all  sides,  they  eagerly  hunt  in  all  the  crack?  .-if  the 
bark,  and  sometimes  they  suspend  themselves,  feet  upwarus  like 
the  torn-tit ;  they  feed  on  insects,  little  worms  and  various    small 
grains.    The  female  lays  from  ten"  to  eighteen  eggs  which  scarcely 
exceed  a  large  pea  in  size  ;  her  nest  of  leaves  is  placed  on   the 
branches  of  the  fir-tree,  in  such  a  mariner  as  to  be  swayed  in  all 
directions  by  the  wind. 

28.  The   True    Wrens  —  Troglodytes,— have  the    middle   toe 
rather  long,  and  the  nails  of  moderate  length.     They  are  remark- 
able for  their  almost  domestic  habits,  often  building  from  prefer- 
ence about  houses,  either  empty  or    inhabited ;  they  also  sing 
agreeably ;  species  are  found  on  both   continents.     The    House. 

Wren, —  Troglodytes  acdou, — Sylvia  domattira, — is  only  a  sum 
mer  resident  of  the   United    States;  but   the     Winter  Wren,— 
Troglodytes  hyemalis, — sometimes   passes  the  winter   in   Penn- 
sylvania. 

29.  The  Wag-tails, — Motacillat  —  are  remarkable  for  the  length 
of  their  tail,  which  they  are  constantly  elevating  and  depressing. 

30.  The   Meadow  Larks,  or    Titlarks,  —  Jiuthus, — somewhat 
resemble  the  larks,  (JHmtda)  on  account  of  the  long   nail   with 
which  their  thumb  is  armed. 

25.  What  arf  the  habits  of  the  Fauvetie  1 

26.  Wh;.t  are  Wrens? 

27.  What  are  ihe  habits  of  Wrens  ? 

28.  What  are  ihe  ch  trac  ers  of  the  true  Wrens  1 

29.  How  arc  the  Wag-tails  characterised  ? 

30.  In  what  respect  do  the  Mea  low  Larks  resemble  the  Larki? 


COCKS  OF  THE  ROCK.— SWALLOWS. J55 

31.  The  Common  Titlark, — Jlnth»s  prat*usis,  or  JH .nda  pr<i- 
tensis,— frequents  humid  prairies  and    becomes  extremely  fat  in 
the  autumn;  in  many  parts  of  France  it  is  then  sought,  and  is 
known  under  the  name  of  &et>figue, — heua-fica. 

32.  The  COCKS  OF  THE  ROCK, —  Rupic  la, — are  distinguished 
Orom  all  the  preceding  species  of  the  family    of  Dentirostres,    by 
having  the  two  external  toes,  united  for  about  one  third  of  their 
length  from  the  base.     The  two   American    species,    when    full 
grown,  are  of  a  beautiful  orange  colour,  and  have  a  double  ver- 
tical crest  on  the  head,  formed  of  feathers  arranged  like   a    fan. 
They  are  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  South  America. 

FAMILY  OF  FISSIROSTRES. 

33.  The  Fissirostres  are  distinguished  by  their  beak,  which  is 
short,  wide,  horizontally  flattened,  slightly   hooked,    without   a 
notch,  and  very  deeply  cleft,  that  is,  the   commissure,   or  line  of 
junction  between   the   two   mandibles,  is  extended  so  that  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  they  easily  swallow  the 
insects  they  pursue  on  the  wing.     All  these  birds  are  exclusively 
insectivorous ;  they  are  also  migratory,  and  migrate  in  the  tem- 
perate zones.     Their  flight  is  the  most  extended  of  all  terrestrial 
birds  ;  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

34.  This  family  is  divided  into  two  tribes,  namely: 

35.  First.     The  DIURNAL  FISSIROSTRES,  with  a  dense  plumage, 
and  a  beak  that  opens  to  beneath  the  eyes. 

36.  Second.     The  NOCTURNAL  FISSIROSTRES,    the    plumage   of 
which  is  soft  and  light  like  that  of  the  owls,  and  their  beak  opens 
to  a  point  beyond  the  eyes. 

37.  The  Diurnal  Fissirostres  constitute  the  GENITS  OF  SWALLOWS, 
—  Hiruudti, — all  of  which  are  remarkable  for  the  length  of  their 
wings ;  this  genus  is  sub-divided  into  swallows  properly  so  called, 
and  Swifts;  the  latter  have   a  remarkable   conformation  of  the 
claws;  the  thumb  is  directed  forward  almost  like  the  other  toes 
which  are  all  separate,  and  each  one  has   but  three   phalanges: 
while  in  the  swallows  properly  so  called  the  thumb  is   inserted 
behind  the  tarsus,  and  preserves  the  same  direction   as   in   the 

31.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Common  Lark  ? 

32.  Flow  nre  Cocks  of  the  Rock  characterised  / 

33.  What  are  the  distinguishing   characters  of  the  Fis  irostr<  s  ?     What 
are  their  hiibiis? 

34.  Into  how  many  tribes  is  the  family  of  Fissirostres  divided? 

35.  How  are  the  Diurnal  Fissirostres  characterised? 

.^6.   How  are  the  Nocturnal  Fissirostres  distinguished  from  the  Diurnal? 
37.  How  are  Swifts  and  Swallows  properly  so  called,  distinguished  from 
each  other  ? 

5* 


5f,  SWALLOWS. 


other  Passerinae  ;  th6  external  toe  is  united  to  the  median,  as  far  as 
the  first  articulation,  and  the  number  of  phalanges  is  not  unusual. 
38  SWALLOWS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Hintudo, — have  a  trian- 
gular beak,  broad  and  depressed  at  the  base,  a  little  curved  at 
the  point,  the  nostrils  oblong,  the  legs  short,  the  wings  very  long, 
and  the  tail  ordinarily  forked.  These  birds  delight  most  in  those 
places  where  flies  and  other  winged  insects  are  common  :  they 
construct  their  nests  with  great  care,  often  of  a  sort  of  masonry 
in  the  ground  ;  the  female  sometimes  lays  twice  a  year.  Most 
of  the  Swallows  leave  us  towards  the  end  of  September,  and 
migrate  in  large  flocks  to  warm  countries  where  they  pass  the 
winter;  but  return  in  the  beginning  of  the  spring  and  take  pos- 
session of  the  nests  they  had  left  the  preceding  year,  Their 
habits  are  mild,  and  they  are  remarkable  for  their  sociability. 
They  often  join  a  great  number  together,  to  drive  off  an  enemy, 
the  attack  of  which  any  one  of  them  may  fear.  The  Swallow 
announces  even  to  Swifts,  and  other  small  birds  the  approach  of 
a  bird  of  prey.  At  the  sight  of  an  owl  or  a  hawk,  it  utters  a 
piercing  cry  ;  immediately  all  the  birds  of  its  species,  and  the 
Swifts  assemble  around  it,  and  often  march  in  line  against  the 
enemy,  which  they  harass  until  he  is  forced  to  beat  a  retreat. 

39.  In  the  genus  of  Swallows  we  must  mention,  the  Martin, — 
Hit-undo  iirbica, — (l*late  4 .  Jiy.  I.)  which  is  black  above,  white 
below  and  on  the  tail,  and  the  feet  are  feathered  to  the  nails.     It 
arrives  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  disappears  about  the  mid- 
dle of  September.     It  constructs  its  nest  of  earth,  lined    inside 
with  straw  and  feathers,   which  it  often  places  in  the  angles  of 
windows  and  beneath  the  eaves. 

40.  The   Chimney   Swallow^—  Hirundo  rnstica, — is  an   inch 
longer  than  the  preceding,  with   a  very  forked  tail  and  naked 
toes  ;  it  is  black  above;  the  front,  that  is  the  forehead,  throat,  and 
brows  are  red,  and  the  rest   of  the  bird  is  ordinarily  white.     It 
arrives  a  little  earlier  than    the  preceding,  constructs  a  similar 
nest,  which  it  commonly  places  on  chimneys,  in  stables  and  barns. 

41.  The  Stlanyane,  or  Eaible  Swallow,  —  Hirundo  esculenta, 
— which  inhabits  the  East  Indian  archipelago,   is  celebrated  on 
account  of  its  nest,  which  it  constructs  of  a   whitish,  gelatinous 
substance,  arranged  in  layers ;  this  substance  is  a  marine  plant 
which  it  soaks  in  the  sea  and  grinds  previously  to  using.     These 
nests  are  eaten,  dressed  like  mushrooms,  and  in  soup ;  the  Chinese 

38.  What  arc  the  habits  of  Swallows  properly  so  called? 

39.  What  is  the  Martin  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

40.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Chimney  Swallow? 

41    What  is  the  S  langane  ?  For  what  purposes  is  the  nest  of  this  Swallow 
used? 


GOATSUCKERS.  57 


regard  them  not  only  as  an  excellent  dish,  but  also  as  a  very- 
restorative  and  medicinal  kind  of  nourishment ;  a  very  extensive 
commerce  is  carried  on  in  this  article,  which  has  been  sold  as 
high  as  five  dollars  a  pound.  From  thirty  to  fifty  thousand 
pounds  are  used  in  China  every  year. 

42.  The    SWIFTS, — Chmtura,   or    MARTINS,    or    Martinets, — 
Cypselus, — have  a  forked  tail  which  consists  of  six   quills   only, 
while  in  the  Swallows  properly  so  called  there  are  twelve;  their 
legs  are  very  short  and  their  toes  are  directed  forwards.     These 
birds  scarcely  walk  at  all,  and  are  seen  constantly   in   the   air, 
pursuing,  in   flocks,   and    with  loud  cries,  insects  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.     They  nestle  in  holes  in  walls,   and 
in  rocks,  and  climb  along  smooth  surfaces  with  great  rapidity 

43.  The    Common   Muriin^ — Hirnndo  apus, — is  about  eight 
inches  long,  and  the  spread  of  the  wings  is  nearly  fifteen  inches. 
It   is  black  with  a  white  throat.     It  appears  in  France  in  the 
month  of  April,  and  departs  on  the  approach  of  cold.     It   ordi- 
narily lays  from  two  to  five  eggs  once  a  year. 

44.  The  tribe  of  NOCTURNAL  FISSIROSTRES  is  composed  of  the 
genus  of  Goatsuckers. 

45.  The  GOATSUCKERS,—  Caprimnlf/its,— (Plate  4.  fig.  2.) — all 
resemble  each  other  in  their  plumage  and    habits.     They  only 
appear  towards  evening,  and,   for  this  reason,  they  might  be 
called  crepuscular  birds.     The  silky  nature  of  their  feathers,  and 
their  mixed  and  delicate  colours,  give  them,  as  far  as  relates  to 
their  external  covering,  a  strong  resemblance   to  owls.     Their 
eyes  are  large ;  their  beak,  which  is  furnished  with  strong  mus- 
taches, and  more  deeply  cleft   or   open    than    in    swallows,    is 
capable  of  receiving  the  largest  insects  which  it  retains  by  means 
of  a  viscid  saliva ;  the  nostrils,  which  are  in  the  form  of  small 
tubes,  are  near  its  base ;  their  wings  are  long,  their   feet  short, 
and  the  tarsi  feathered  ;  the  thumb  can  be  directed  forward. 

4(5  These  birds  live  isolated,  and  only  fly  during  the  twilight, 
or  in  fine  nights;  they  pursue  the  phalenae  and  other  nocturnal 
insects,  and  lay  a  small  number  of  eggs  on  the  ground  without 
taking  much  care  to  construct  a^nest.  When  they  fly.  the  rush- 
ing of  the  air  into  their  wide  mouth  produces  a  peculiar  humming 
noise.  It  has  been  said  that  they  sucked  the  goats,  but  this  is 
untrue;  the  notion  arose  probably  from  their  frequenting  the 

42.  How  are  the  Swifts  distinguished  from  the  Swallows? 

4'.}.  What  are  the  characters  ot  the  common  Martin? 

44.  What  genus  constitutes  the  Nocturnal  Fissirostres  ? 

45.  VVhiit  are  the  characters  of  the  Goatsuckers? 

46  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Goatsuckers  ?  From  what  circumstance 
uo  they  durivt:  theii  name  / 

2B 


58  GOATSUCKERS. 


fields,  where  goats  and  sheep  were  herded,  in  pursuit  of  the 
insects  which  are  attracted  there  in  great  numbers.  Only  one 
species  of  Goatsucker  is  known  in  Europe. 

47.  The    European    Goatsucker, — Caprtmn/gits    europreits, — 
(Plate  4.  fig.  2.)  is  of  a  brown  gray,  undulated    with    blackish 
brown,  with  a  whitish  band  running  from  the  beak  to  the   back 
of  the  neck.     It  arrives  in  France  in  the  spring,   nestles  in  the 
heath,  and  the  moment  its  food  begins  to  grow  scarce  it  seeks  a 
warmer  climate. 

48.  There  is  one  species  in  Africa,  remarkable  for  a  feather 
twice  the  length  of  the  body  which  arises  from  near  the   carpus 
of  each  wing,  and  is  barbed  only  near  the  extremity.     The  warm 
parts  of  America  abound  in  these  birds. 

49  The  Chuck-wills  WuHw, —  Capfimuiymt  carolhtensis, — 
appears  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States  about  the 
middle  of  March.  The  head  and  back  are  dark  brown,  minutely 
mottled  with  yellowish  red,  and  longitudinally  streaked  with 
black. 

50.  The    Whip-poor-will, — Caprimvlgnt  rod  finis, — is   heard 
during  the  spring  and  early  autumn,  in  the  middle  section  of  the 
United  States.     Its  general  colour  is  a  brownish  gray,  streaked 
and  finely  sprinkled  with  brownish  black.     About  the  middle  of 
May,  the  female  lays  two  eggs;  like  all  birds  of  this  genus,  she 
buflds  no  nest,  but  deposites  her  eggs  upon  the  bare  ground,  in 
some  dry  and  sequestered  situation. 

51.  The    N  glit-Huwk,  or  Niy hl-Jar, — Capriwulgns  Jlmeri- 
camis  — is  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.     It  is  of  a 
brownish  black,  mottled  with  white,  and  a  pale  reddish  brown 
above,  and  a  grayish  white,  undulated  with  dark  brown   below 
Night-Hawks  arrive  in  the  Middle  States  towards  the  close  of 
April.     They  are  commonly  seen  towards  evening  in  pairs,  sail- 
ing around  in   sweeping  circles,   high  in   the  air,  occasionally 
descending  lower  to  capture  flying  insects,  chiefly   of  the  larger 
kind,  such  as  wasps,  beetles  and  moths.     About   the    middle   of 
August,  they  begin  their  migrations  towards  the  south,  and  may 
be    seen  as  late  as  the  middle  jof  September,  in    the  evening, 
in    scattered   flocks,   consisting   of  several  hundreds    together, 
moving  towards  more  congenial  climes,  darting  after  insects,  01 
feeding  leisurely  as  they  advance.     Sometimes  different   species 
of  Swallow  are  mingled  in  these  wandering  tribes. 

47.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Goatsuckei  * 

48.  Are  Goatsuckers  peculiar  to  Europe? 

49-  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Chuck-will's  widow 7 

50.  What  is  the  Whip-poor-will? 

51.  What  is  the  Night  Hawk 't 


LARKS. 


FAMILY  OF  CONIROSTRES. 

52.  All  the  birds  of  this  family  have  a  strong  beak,  more  or 
less  conical,  and  without  a  notch,  ( I'late  3.  fig.  9.):  they  live  on 
grains,  more  exclusively  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and  thick- 
ness of  their  beak.  The  principal  genera  of  this  family  are ; 
the  Larks,  the  Titmice,  the  Buntings,  the  Sparrows,  the  Cross- 
bills, the  Crows,  and  Birds  of  Paradise,  which  may  be  distin- 
guished bv  the  following  characters : 

(Genera  ) 

C  Straight,  strong,  and  longer  than  that  of  the  other  toes,    }»  LARK. 
j 

(    Very  slender,  and  fur-     'j 


0 

nished  with  hairs  at  the 

}•  TITMOUSE. 

s 

base. 

J 

1 

8*3" 

Z  •""' 

Short, 
straight  and  <! 
conical. 

Pre'ty  strong,  nnd  fur. 
nished  inside  with  a  hard 
tubercle,  fixed  to  the 
palate. 

f  BUNTING. 

51 

Strong,  and  more  or 
bss  thick  at  the  base;  up- 

} SPARROW. 

i 

per  mandible  inflated. 

• 

JB 

Of  ordinary 
^size.      Beak" 

Compressed,  and  the  mandibles  cross- 
ing each  other. 

\  CROSSBILL, 

Stiff 

feathers,  direc- 

CROW. 

ted  forwards. 

Very  strong,  and 
more  or  less  flattened 
on  the  sides  ;    nostrils 

Feathers, 
which    re>em- 
ble  velvet 

[     BIRD  or 
j  PARADISE. 

L            covered  by 

53.  The  LARKS, — Jllmida, — have  a  straight,  short  beak,  in 
the  form  of  an  extended  cone,  (Plate  4,  fig.  4.);  their  head  is 
small,  round,  and  furnished  with  feathers  on  top,  which  are  more 
or  less  erectile ;  their  tail  is  of  moderate  length,  and  almost 
always  forked  ;  their  nostrils  are  covered  by  small  feathers  which 
are  directed  forwards;  the  posterior  nail  is  straight,  strong,  and 
much  longer  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  toes  The  conformation 
of  their  nails  does  not  permit  these  birds  generally  to  alight  on 
trees,  but  it  is  useful  to  them  when  they  run  overnewlv  ploughed 


52.  How  are  the  Conirostres  characterised  ?     Upon  what  do  they   feed 
What  are  the  principal  genera  composing  this  family  ? 

53.  What  are  the  < -haracters  of  the  Larks  ?     Wnat  are  their  habits  » 


60  TITMICE. 


ground;  they  dwell,  in  general,  on  the  ground,  and  feed  on 
grains,  tender  herbs,  insects  and  larvae.  They  also  have  the 
habit  of  dusting  themselves  by  fluttering  on  the  ground.  The 
Common  Lark  is  found  nearly  throughout  the  eastern  continent. 
During  the  summer,  these  birds  prefer  dry  elevated  situations, 
and  delight  in  soaring  to  great  heights  in  the  air,  singing  in  a 
strong,  melodious  voice.  In  winter,  they  assemble  in  large  num- 
bers on  the  level  country  in  search  of  food  ;  when  the  cold  is 
intense  they  take  refuge  among  the  rocks,  and  along  streams  that 
do  not  freeze,  and  when  pushed  by  want,  they  approach  our 
habitations.  They  nestle  on  the  ground,  and  without  brconring 
familiar  with  man,  they  become  accustomed  to  captivity.  Their 
flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy. 

54.  The  Shore  Lark, — Jilanda  alpestris, — is  of  a  reddish  gray 
inclining  to  brown  above,  whitish  beneath  with  the  throat  and  a 
stripe  over  the  eye  of  a  pale  yellow  ;  the  tail  and   wings,  and  a 
patch  on  the  breast,  black.     This  beautiful  species  is  common  in 
the  northern  parts  of  both  continents.     These  birds  arrive  in  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States  early  in  October,  and  generally  dis- 
appear on  the  approach  of  snow. 

55.  The  Sky  Lark,—  JHaucia  arver>sis, — is  universally  known 
by  its  perpendicular  mode  of  soaring,  accompanied  by  its  varied 
and  powerful  song.     It  is  brown  above  ;  whitish  underneath,  an  1 
spotted  throughout,  with  a  deeper  shade  of  brown. 

56.  The  TITS,  or  TITMICE, — Pans, —  have  a  slender  and  very 
short  beak.     They  are  extremely  lively   little  birds ;  they   are 
constantly  leaping  from  branch  to  branch  in  short  flights,  climb- 
ing and  suspending  themselves  in  all  manner  of  positions,  p'uck- 
ing  the  grains  upon  which  they  feed,  also  eating   many    insects, 
not  even  sparing  small  birds  when  they  find  them  enfeebled  by 
sickness,  or  entangled  in  snares ;  they  are  often   seen   to  pierce 
their  skulls  by  repeated  strokes  of  the  beak  to  devour  the  brains  ; 
they  also  pick  the  bones  to  a  skeleton.     In  proportion  to  their  size, 
which  is  very  small,  these  are  the  strongest  of  all   birds;  they 
attack  owls  fiercely;  they  have  tt.e  habit  of  storing  a  provision 
of  grains-;  they  ne^t  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees,  and  Jay  more 
eggs  than  any  other  of  the  passerine  birds.     Species  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  there  are  several  in  the  United 
States.     The  Tufted  Titmouse  * — f*arus  bicolor, —  is  crested,  and 
scarcely  exists  north  of  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York.     It  is  of  a 

54.  Whil  are  the  characters  of  the  Shore  Lark  ? 

55.  What  are  characters  of  the  Sky  Lark  ? 

56.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Titmice  1     What   are  their   habits7 
Where  are  they  found  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  Tufted  Titmouse  ? 


BUNTINGS.— SPARROWS. 6\ 

dark   bluish   ash-colour  above,  whitish  beneath,   and  the  flanks 
are  tinned  of  a  yellowish  brown 

57.  The  BUNTINGS,—  Emberiza — ( Platr-3,  fyj.  9.)  have  a  short, 
straight,  conical  beak,  the  upper  mandible  being  narrower,  enters 
within  the  lower,  and  there  is  a  projecting  hard  tubercle  on  the 
palate.'    All  these  birds  are  granivorous,  yet  they  also  eat  insects  ; 
they  inhabit  thickets,  fields  covered  with    hedges,  gardens,  and 
the  woods  rarely.     They  have  little  foresight,   and  are   readily 
caught  in  traps.     Some  of  them  assemble  in  numerous  troops  in 
the  winter.     The  most  common  species  in  France  are  the  Yellow 
Bunting, — Embenza  vilrimilu^  —  the  Common  Bunting, — Embe- 
riza  miliarw, —  and  the  Ortolan,  —  Einbc.riza   hortuluna, — and 
there  are  several  in  the  United  States      Amongst  the  latter  may 
be  mentioned  here,  perhaps,  the   It  ice  liird,  or  Bob-a-Link, — 
Embcriza  oryzivora,  or  Dutu-koiufx  urtfzirorus. 

58.  The  SPARROWS  have  a  conical  beak  which  is  more  or  less 
thick  at  the  base;  they  generally  live  on  grains,  and  are  for  the 
most  part  voracious  and  destructive.     They  are   divided    into 
Sparrows  properly  so  called,  Weavers,  Linnets,  Goldfinches,  &c. 

To  the  genus  of  SPARROWS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Pyrgita, — 
belong : 

59.  The  Common  Sparrow, —  Priugilla  domrstica, — which    is 
brown,  spotted  blackish  above,  with  a  whitish  band  on  the  win,?, 
gray  beneath,  the  sides  of  the  crown  in  the  male  reddish,  and  hi§ 
throat  black.     It  abounds  in  all  parts  of  the  eastern   continent, 
except  in  those   places   where   wheat   does  not  grow  ;  this  bird 
nests  in  holes  in  walls,  and  is  very  destructive  from  its  voracity. 
The  farmers  complain  very  much  of  the  pillage  of  these  birds  ; 
the  destructive  war  they  wage  against  caterpillars,  and  winged 
insects,  compensates,   however,   for  their  passing  devastations ; 
and    every  thing  considered,    it   may    be  said   they  are  more 
beneficial    than    injurious  to  rural  economy.     The  sparrow   is 
courageous,  and  often  contends  with  birds  ten  times  larger  than 
itself,  and  sometimes  enters  dove-cots      These  birds   ordinarily 
nest  under  eaves  or  in  hollows  of  trees:   the  nest  is  constructed 
of  hay  and  straw,  lined  with  feathers ;    it  is  placed  so  as  not  to 
be  injured  either  by  the  sunshine  or  rain.     The  tenderness  of  the 
female  for  her  young  is  very  interesting.     The   male  is  distin- 
guished from  the  female  by  a  black  spot  on  the  beak. 

57.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Buntings  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

58.  How  are  the  Sparrows  characterised  ? 

59.  What  are  the  characters  of  the   common   Sparrow  T     What  are   lt» 
habits?     Where  is  it  found? 

2B» 


62 GROSBE  A  KS.— BULLFINCHES. 

60.  The  Common  Chaffinches, — F ring  ilia  tttifbt, — are  among 
the  most  common  of  European  birds ;  their  habits  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  tn"  common  Sparrow,  but  they  are  more  lively 
and  their  song  is  more  varied. 

61.  The  Common  GttLi  finch, —  Ft  ing  ilia  carduelis, — is  among 
the  most  beautiful  birds  of  Europe.     It  is  very  docile,  and  quickly 
learns  to  sing,  and  to  play  all  kinds  of  tricks 

62.  The    Yi'lLno   bird,  or  Jitm-ricun  Goldfinch, —  Fringillrt 
trixti$fr—has  black   wings  varied  with   white,  and  a  black  tail 
tipped  with  white.     In  summer,  the  male  is   dressed    in    yellow 
with  a  black  crown,  and  in  the  autumn  in  brown  olive,  which  is 
the  permanent  colour  of  the  female  and  young  yellow  birds.      It 
is  a  general  inhabitant  of  the  United  States 

63.  The  Common  Snow  tiird, —  FrioyiMu  hyemalis, — is  a  hardy 
and  very  numerous  species,  common  to  both  continents.     About 
the  middle  of  October  they  pour  in   flocks  from  the  northern 
regions  into  the  United  States,  where  their  arrival  is  looked  upon 
as  the  presage  of  winter. 

64.  The  Linnet, — Frinyilla  canabiua, — is  found  in  all  parts  of 
Europe,  and  chiefly  inhabits  the  planes ;  its  song  is  very  agree- 
able. 

65.  The  Canary  Bird,  —  Fringilln    canaria, — somewhat   re- 
sembles the  Linnet,  though  it  differs  from  it  very  much  in  colour. 
It  sings  so  agreeably,  and  is  so  easily  multiplied  in  a  state    of 
captivity,  that  it  has  become  common  throughout  the  world.  Most 
naturalists  agree  that  it  came  originally  from  the  Canary  Islands, 
where  it  is  found   wild  in  great  numbers;  but  some  travellers 
suppose  that  it  was  first  brought  from  Asia. 

66.  The  GROSBEAKS,  —  Cacc»tliranstes, — are  distinguished  from 
other  Sparrows  by  the  great  size  of  their  beak  which  is  exactly 
conical.     The  Common  (Grosbeak, — Loxia  caccothraustcs, — is  the 
most  strongly  characterised,     It  inhabits  woody  mountains  and 
eats  almonds  and  all  sorts  of  fruit. 

67.  The  BULLFINCHES, — Pyrrftula, —  have  a  round  beak  which 
is  inflated  in  every  direction,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  crush  the 
hardest  seeds. 

60.  How  does  the  Chaffinch  differ  from  the  Common  Sparrow  ? 

61.  What  is  the  common  Goldfinch  ? 

62.  What  is  the  American  Goldfinch  ? 

63.  What  is  the  common  Snow  Bird  ? 

64.  What  is  the  Linnet? 

65.  Where  did  the  Canary  Bird  come  from  originally? 

66-  How  are  the  Grosbeaks  distinguished  from  other  Sparrows  ? 
67.  How  are  Bullfinches  chaructensed  ? 


CROSSBILLS.— CROWS.— RAVEN.  63 

63.  The  CROSSBILLS, — Loxia, — resemble  the  Bullfinches,  but 
the  mandibles  of  the  beak  are  so  much  curved  at  the  point  that 
they  cross  each  other.  By  this- singular  beak  they  are  enabled 
to  tear  out  the  seeds  from  under  the  pine-cones.  The  Common 
Crossbill, — Cnrrir<stia  Amcricmm*t-~'\9  found  inhabiting  the  ex- 
tensive pine  forests  in  the  interior  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
Northern  States,  from  April  to  September. 

69.  The  Uecf-euterSt  —  Buphayn, — make  use    of  their   beak, 
which  is  inflated  at  the  end,  to  compress   the   skin   of  cattle  to 
squeeze  out  the  Iarva3  of  the  oestrus  which  they  eat.     Only    one 
species  is  known,  which  inhabits  Africa. 

70.  The  MailintiS) — Stemus,—  have  a  straight  beak,  depressed 
at  the  point.     They  also  follow  cattle  and  feed  on  insects.    They 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

71.  The  CROWS, — Corvits, — have  a  large  beak,  straight  at  the 
base,  curved  towards  the  point,  and  cutting  on  the  edges;  their 
nostrils  are  concealed  by  hairs  directed  forwards,  their  toes  are 
entirely  divided,  and  their  wings  are  truncate  at  the  extremity. 
They  live  in  troops,  and  are  cunning  and  distrustful ;  they  readily 
become  familiar,  and  learn  to  speak   with   considerable   facility. 
The  senses  of  this  bird,  that  of  smell  particularly,  are  very  acute. 
They  have  the  habit  of  stealing  and  concealing  everything  they 
find,  even  articles  which  are  useless  to  them,  such  as  small  pieces 
of  money  ;  they   provide  provision   for  the  future  season,  and 
feed  on  every  kind  of  aliment,  grains,  fruits,  insects  and  worms, 
living  or  dead  flesh,  so  that  no  animal  better  merits  the  epithet  of 
omnivorous.     The  principal  species  of  this  genus  are : 

72.  The  Raven,  —  Corvus  corax, — is  the  largest  passerine  bird 
found  in  Europe.     Its  size  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  domestic 
cock;  its  plumage  is  entirely  black,  its  tail  rounded,  the  back  or 
top  of  the  upper  mandible  arcuate  in  front.     The  female  is  of  a 
less  decided  black,  and  her  size   is  somewhat   less.     This  bird 
flies  well  and  high  ;  it  perceives  dead  bodies  at  a  great  distance, 
and  feeds  besides  on  all  kinds  of  fruits  and    small  animals.     It 
lives  very  retired,  but  in  pairs,  which  make  their  nest  in  crevices 
of  rocks,  or  in  holes  in  walls,  in  old  abandoned  towers,  and  some- 
times upon  the  summit  of  lone  trees.     The  nest  is   very   large, 

68.  VVhat  are  the  characters  of  the  Crossbills  ? 

69.  From  what  circumstance  do  the  Beef-eaters  derive  their  name  ? 

70.  What  are  Starlings? 

71.  What  are  the  characters  of  Crows  ?     What  are  their  habits?     Upon 
what  do  they  feed  ? 

72.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Raven  ?    What  are  its  h;.bits?     What 
situations  does  u  select  for  its  ntst  ?     Where  is  it  found?     How    (foes  the 
female  differ  from  the  male  ? 

6 


64  JACKDAW.— MAC  PIE. 

and  is  composed  externally  of  branches  and  roots  of  shrubs ; 
bones  of  quadrupeds,  or  fragments  of  hard  substances  form  the 
second  layer,  and  (he  interior  is  lined  with  herbs,  moss,  and  hair. 
About  the  month  of  March,  the  female  lays  five  or  six  eggs  of  a 
pale  bluish  green  colour,  marked  with  a  great  many  obscure 
spots  and  tints.  The  c.ires  of  incubation,  which  lasts  about 
twenty  "days,  are  shared  by  the  male.  The  Raven  is  met  with 
in  all  climates ;  it  appears  to  be  insensible  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  seasons.  When  other  birds  are  overcome  by  the  cold  and 
oppressed  by  hunger,  it  leisurely  seeks  its  prey  and  hunts  in  the 
coldest  atmosphere.  Some  travellers  assert  that  they  have  seen 
Ravens  that  were  entirely  white;  which  is  apparently  attributa- 
ble to  the  rigorous  climate  of  northern  regions. 

73.  [The  Crnir,  —  Coivus  Jltnericanvs, — like  the   Faven,  is  a 
denizen  of  nearly  the  whole  world.     Our  native  Crow  is  black 
and  glossy,  with  violet  coloured  reflections.     It  is  a  troublesomely 
abundant    resident   in    most   of  the   settled   districts   of  North 
America,     It  is  easily  raised  and  domesticated,  and  soon  learns 
to  distinguish  the  different  members  of  the  family  with  which  it 
is  associated. 

74.  [  The  Fish-Crow, — Corrus  ossifragns, —  keeps   apart  from 
the  common  species,  and  spends  its  time  near  rivers,  hovering 
over  the  stream  to  catch  up  dead,  and  perhaps  living  fishes.     It 
breeds  in  New  Jersey  in  tall  trees,  having  nests  and  eggs  very 
similar  to  the  preceding  species.] 

75.  The  Jackdaw, —  Corvns  monelula, — is  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon  ;  it  is  less  black  than  the  Crow,  inclining  even  to  ash- 
colour  about  the  neck  and  below.     It  inhabits  Europe  through- 
out the  year,  and  keeps  about  the  tops  of  churches,  in  old  towers, 
in  ruined  buildings,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  around  chim- 
neys ;  its  nests  are  also  found  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  and  rabbit 
burrows.     The  female  lays  five  or  six  eggs,  which  are  paler  and 
smaller  than  those  of  the  Raven.     Jackdaws  are  readijy   tamed 
and  may  be  taught  even  to  pronounce  words.     They  like  to  hide 
a  part  of  their  food,  and  we  sometimes  find  in  their  holes  small 
pieces  of  money  which  they  delight  in  stealing.     They   feed   on 
grains,  insects  and  fruits;  they  are  particularly  fond  of  partridge 
eggs,  and  they  have  been  known  to  catch  fish. 

76.  The  Magpie, —  ljica, — Corvns  pica, — is  a  beautiful  bird, 
of  a  silky  black  colour,  with  purple,  blue  and  gold  reflections:  it 

"3.  What  are  the  habit*  of  the  Crow  ? 

""4.  Where  is  the  Fish-Crow  found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

"•5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Jackdaw  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

76    What  are  the  characters  of  the  Magpie  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


JAYS. 65 

is  white  beneath,  and  there  is  a  spot  of  the  same  colour  on  the 
wing.  The  Magpie  is  omnivorous,  and  often  commits  great 
ravages  in  granaries  and  poultry  yards.  It  never  attempts  long 
journeys,  but  flies  from  tree  to  tree  when  at  a  short  distance 
apart.  The  female  takes  great  pains  in  the  construction  of  her 
nest,  never  leaving  a  greater  opening  than  is  necessary  for  her 
own  entrance  and  egress ;  she  covers  it  with  a  transparent  veil 
composed  of  small  thorny  branches,  closely  interlaced  ;  she  lines 
it  with  wool  and  other  soft  materials  upon  which  her  young  ones 
snugly  repose ;  she  lays  seven  or  eight  eggs  of  a  pale  gray 
colour,  spotted  black.  This  bird  may  be  easily  tamed  and  taught 
to  pronounce  words,  and  even  short  sentences ;  often  when  a 
strange  sound  strikes  her  ear,  she  endeavours  to  imitate  it.  Like 
other  birds  of  its  genus,  it  is  inclined  to  theft,  and  also  has  the 
habit  of  concealing  superfluous  food.  The  Magpies  are  known 
to  make  so  great  a  destruction  among  the  eggs  of  grouse, 
pheasants,  partridges,  and  even  among  young  chickens,  in  many 
parts  of  t.urope,  as  to  be  proscribed  by  law,  and  destroyed  for 
the  premium  justly  set  on  their  heads.  In  this  country,  these 
birds  are  confined  to  the  northern  regions,  and  to  the  planes  and 
table-lands  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In 
Upper  California,  there  is  a  species  which  differs  from  the  pre- 
ceding, in  having  the  bill,  and  a  bare  space  beneath  and  behind 
the  eye,  yellow.  It  is  called  the  Yellow-billed  Maypie, —  Pica 
Niitttiliu. 

77.  The  Jay  of  Europe, — Cormis  ylnndarius, — is  of  a  vinous 
gray,  with  mustaches,  and  the  quills  of  the  tail  black  ;  it  is  par- 
ticularly remarkable  for  a  spot  of  dazzling  blue,  striped  with  a 
deep  blue,  which  marks  a  part  of  the  wing  coverts.  Jays  are 
met  with  that  have  a  white  or  yellowish  plumage  and  a  red  iris 
like  that  of  albinos.  This  bird  is  spread  almost  throughout 
Europe,  where  it  lives  in  pairs,  which  assemble  in  small  troops, 
and  feed  on  acorns,  gooseberries,  cherries  and  insects.  The  Jays 
are  of  a  petulent  nature  ;  they  are  very  lively,  and  quick  in  their 
motions;  and  in  their  frequent  paroxysms  of  rage,  they  forget 
their  own  self  preservation,  and  are  sometimes  caught  by  the 
head  betwixt  two  branches  and  die,  thus  suspended  in  the  air: 
their  perpetual  agitation  leads  to  increased  violence  when  con- 
fined, and  for  this  reason,  they  are  not  recognisable  in  a  cage, 
not  being  able  to  preserve  the  beauty  of  their  feathers,  which  aie 
soon  broken,  torn  and  disordered,  by  their  continual  rubbing 
against  its  walls.  [The  elegant  and  common  American  species, 

77.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Jay  ?  What  are  its  habits? 
What  are  the  characters  of  the  Blue  Jay  ? 


Gb  CROW  BLACKBIRDS.— BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


the  Blue  Jfiy, —  Corvva  cristatits,  —  resembles  the  preceding  in  its 
temper  and  habits.  It  is  crested  ;  it  is  blue  above,  and  beneath 
whitish  with  a  black  collar;  the  wing  coverts  are  transversely 
barred  black,  and  the  tail  is  wedge-shaped. 

78.  [The  Great  Crow  Blackbird, — Quiscalus  major, — is  glossy 
black      This  large  crow-like  species,  sometimes  called  the  Jack- 
daw, inhabits  the  s  >uthern  maritime  parts  of  the.  United  States. 
It  is  sociable  in  disposition,  and  often  mingles  with   the  common 
Crow-blackbirds.     It  is  omnivorous,  and  feeds  on  insects,  small 
shell-fish,  corn  and  small  grain,  so  that  by  turns,  it  may  be  viewed 
as  the  friend  or  plunderer  of  the  planter.     The  common  Crow- 
Blackbird, — Quisculiis  versico/or, — and  the  Rusty   Blackbird, — 
Quiscalus  ferruginous,— are  two  other  American  species  of  this 
genus.] 

79.  BIRDS  OF  PARADISE, — Paradiscea, — like  the  Crows  have  a 
straight,  quadrangular,  pointed  beak,  which  is  compressed  and  a 
little  convex  above ;  their  nostrils  are  covered   by    the  velvety 
feathers  of  the  front.     These  birds,  which  are  indigenous  to  New 
Guinea  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  are  all  provided   with  the 
most  brilliant  plumage.  Their  history  was  fora  long  time  a  tissue 
of  fable  and  absurdity.     The  female,  it   was  asserted,   laid  her 
eggs  while  flying,  and  had  no  legs  ;  and  when  sleeping,    it   sus- 
pended itself  from    branches  of  trees  by   the  long  thread   like 
feathers  of  the  tail ;  that  it  fed  exclusively  on   dew,  and    never 
touched  the  earth  till  it  was  dead  !     All    these    accounts  have 
found  their  place,  and  observation  has  revealed  the  truth. 

80.  The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Emerald  Bird  of  Para* 
dise, — Poradiscea  apoda.  —  lls  head  is  small,  but  ornamented  with 
feathers  that  in  brilliancy  rival  those  of  the  peacock ;  the  neck  is 
of  a  yellowish  tint;  the  body  is    very  small,   but  covered    with 
long   feathers  of  a   brown  tint  sprinkled  with   gold,  two   long 
bearded  filaments  or  thread  like  feathers,  spring  from  the   rump 
and  form  the  tail.     The  long,  light,  and  graceful  feathers  of  this 
bird  form  the   most  beautiful,  and  most  sought  plumes  for   the 
decoration  of  ladies'  head  dresses.     These  birds  travel  in  troops 
of  thirty  or  forty  under  the  direction  of  a  chief,  which  the  Indians 
call  the  king.     Their  light  plumage  does  not  permit  them  to  fly 
against  the  wind,  and  if  overtaken  by  a  gale  they  rise  into  the 
upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  leave  the  storm  below  them. 

IS.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Great  Crow  Blackbiid?  What  are 
its  habits  ? 

79.  What  are  the  characters  of  Birds  of  Paradise  ?  Where  are  they  found  ? 

SO  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise?  Whal 
are  its  habits  ? 


NUTHATCHES.  67 


LESSON    V. 

FAMILY  OF  ENUIROSTRES, — Nuthatches. —  Creepers. — Humming 
Birds. 

FAMILY  OF  SYNDACTYLJE. — Bee-eaters — Kingfisher*. — Horubills. 

ORDER  OF  SCANSORI^E — Zoological  Characters  — Woodpeckers. 
—  Wrynecks. —  (  uc/toos. —  Toucans. —  Parrots. — Habits,  {Mac- 
caws,  Paioquets,  P an ots  properly  so  called) 

FAMILY  OF  TENUIROSTRES. 

1.  Birds  of  this  family  have  a  slender,  elongated  beak  without 
a  notch,  and  which  is  sometimes  straight,  and  sometimes  arcuate. 
(Plate  3,  Jig.  11.)  The  principal  genera  of  this  family  are  the 
Nuthatches,  Creepers,  Humming-birds,  and  Hoopoes,  which  may 
be  recognised  by  the  following  characters : 

(Genera.) 

^Straight,     ....       )>  NUTHATCHES. 
Moderate,  and  < 

/  Arcaatc,     ....       ^CREEPERS. 


TENUIROSTRES, 


f      Very  long, 

extensible. 
Very  long  and        J 


very  slender,  tongue  j       Short,  and      "^ 

lying    close    at   lHoopo£s. 

the  bottom  of 
t       the  throat       j 

2.  The  Nuthatches,  —  Sitta, — have  a  moderate,  straight, 
depressed  beak,  which  is  cylindrical,  conical,  and  trenchant  at 
the  point;  their  nostrils  are  partly  covered  by  hairs  directed  for- 
wards, and  their  tongue  is  short  and  very  slightly  protractile. 
They  climb  with  agility  in  all  directions,  live  on  insects  and 
nestle  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  Common  European  Nuthatch, 
— Sit ta  Einopaa, — is  of  a  bluish  ash-colour.  It  is  sedentary, 
and  inhabits  the  lofty  forests  The  male  joins  the  female  in  the 
spring,  in  constructing  the  nest ;  they  establish  themselves  in  a 
hole  in  a  tree,  and  if  the  hole  is  too  large,  they  reduce  it  with 
mud,  which  circumstance  has  acquired  for  it  the  name  of 
Mason-pie;  they  line  the  interior  with  a  thin  bed  of  moss,  upon 
which  the  female  lays  from  five  to  seven  grayish  eggs,  marked 

1.  What    are  the  characters   of  birds   of  the   family  of    Tenuirostres? 
tVhat  are  ihe  principal  gentra  of  this  family  ? 

2.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Nuthatches  ?     What   are  the   habif* 
of  the  common  European  Nuthatch  ?     Upon  what  docs  jt  feed  / 


68  CREEPERS. 


with  small  red  spots.  It  is  said,  she  is  so  much  attached  to  her 
e^rers,  that  she  never  leaves  them  during  the  whole  period  of  incu- 
bation, and  takes  no  other  food  than  that  brought  to  her  by  the 
male.  The  young  escape  from  the  shell  about  the  month  of  May, 
and  very  soon  retire  to  live  by  themselves.  These  birds  feed  on 
insects,  grains,  hazel-nuts,  beech-nuts,  flax-seed,  &c.  The  mode 
of  getting  out  the  substance  of  the  hazel-nuts,  consists  in  fixing 
them  solidly  in  a  crack,  and  then  piercing  them  by  repeated  blows 
with  their  beak. 

3  [In  the  United  States  we  have  the  W kite -breasted  Nuthatch, 
— Sitta  ctinilinrnsis, — which  is  lead  colour,  with  the  head  and 
neck  black  above,  and  pure  white  beneath ;  the  Red-bellied 
Nuthatch,  — Sitta  canaiensis, — which  is  of  a  rust  colour  be- 
neath, and  some  others ;  all  of  which,  in  their  general  habits, 
resemble  the  European  species] 

4.  The  CREEPERS,  —  Ctrtkia, — have  a  beak  of  moderate  length, 
more  or  less  arcuate,  triangular,  compressed  and  slender;  their 
nostrils,  which  are  horizontally  pierced,  are  half  closed  by  an 
arched  membrane. 

5.  The  Creepers  property  so  called, — Certhia, — have  a  slanting 
tail,  which  is  furnished  with  stiff,  sharp  quills ;  it    serves  to  aid 
them  in  climbing  trees;  their  tongue  is  sharp  and  adapted  for 
piercing  insects  upon    which   they   feed.     There  is  one  species 
found  in  Europe,  and  one  in  the  United  States.     The  European 
Creeper, — Certhia  familiaris, —  is  a  small  bird  which  is  met  with 
in  different  parts  of  Europe,  as  far  north  as  Siberia ;  it  is  con- 
stantly climbing  trees  in  pursuit  of  insects  and  larvae.   The  firuwn 
Creeper, —  Certhia  americana, — is    of  a    dark  gray  varied  with 
white,    brown  and  dusky  ;  white  beneath  ;  the  rump   and  tail 
rusty.     This  industrious  forager  for  insects,  chiefly   dwelling  in 
the  seclusion  of  the  forest,  is  but  seldom  seen    in   summer ;  but 
on   the   approach    of  winter,  with  other  hungry  wanderers   of 
similar  habits,  such  as  the  small  Woodpeckers  and   Nuthatches, 
he   makes  his  appearance  on  the  wooded  skirts  of  the  village, 
particularly  among  pine  trees,  and  occasionally  becomes  familiar 
enough  to  pay  a  passing   visit  to  the  orchard.     The  species  is 
neither  common   nor   abundant,    though  their  breeding  range 
extends  from  Pennsylvania  to  Newfoundland. 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch  ?     What  are 
the  chaiacteis  of  the  Ued-bellied  Nuthatch?     Where  are  these  two  species 
found  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Creepers  .«• 

5.  Wlint  are  the  characters  of  the  Creeper  properly   so   called?     What  is 
the  European  Creeppr  ?    What  is  t!ie  Brown  Creeper  ?     What  are  the  hablta 
of  these  birds  ? 


HUMMING-BIRDS.— SYNDACTYL^L 69 

6  There  are  several  sub  divisions  of  this  genus.  Those  known 
in  France  under  the  name  of  ecfnle.ttes, — 'Tichndrnma^ — climb 
like  the  preceding,  but  without  supporting  themselves  with  their 
tail,  which  is  feeble  and  rounded  ;  they  keep  more  on  walls  and 
rocks  than  on  trees. 

7.  The  HUMMING-BIRDS, —  Trochilvs,— (  plafe  3,   fiq.   1 1.)  are 
celebrated  for  the  beautiful  colours  and  metallic    lustre  of  their 
plumage,  as  well  as  for  their  small  size;  they   inhabit    America 
and  the  adjacent  islands.     Their  beak  is  long,  straight  or  arcuate, 
tubular  and  very  slender ;  their  tongue  is  long,  extensible   and 
bifid,  that  is,  divided  into  two  filaments  ;  their  nostrils  are  covered 
by  a  wide  arched  membrane,  and  their  feet,  which  are  very  short, 
have  the  tarsi  shorter  than  the  middle  toe ;  their  wings  are  very 
long;  their  plumage  is  sometimes  ornamented  with  patches  that 
are  as  brilliant  as  precious  stones      They  feed  on  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  about  which  they  are  seen  buzzing  and  balancing  in  the 
air  like  certain  flies,  or  rather  butterflies.     They  sometimes  eat 
small  flies  and  other  diminutive  insects  which  they  find  in  flowers. 
They  live  isolated,  and  defend  their  nests  courageously,  and  some- 
times contend  fiercely  with  each  other.     The   Northern    Hum- 
miny-bird, —  Ttochilus  colubris, — is  golden-green  ;  the  tail  forked 
and  dusky,  and  the  three  outer  tail  feathers  are  of  a  rusty  white 
at  tip.     The  male  has  a  changeable  ruby-coloured  throat,  which 
in  the  female  is  nearly  white.     This  wonderfully  diminutive  and 
brilliant  bird,  is  the  only  one  of  an  American  genus,  of  more  than 
a  hundred  species,  which  ventures  beyond  the  limits  of  tropical 
climates. 

8.  The  Hoopoe*,— Upupa, — have  an   ornament  on  the  head 
formed  of  a  double  range  of  long  feathers,  which  they  can  erect 
at  will. 

FAMILY  OF  SYNDACTYL.E. 

9.  In  the  birds  of  this  family,  the  external  toe  is  almost  as  long 
as  the  middle  one,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  a  membrane  as  far  as 
the  penultimate  articulation. 

10.  The  principal  genera  of  this  family,  are:  the   Bee-eaters, 
the  King  Fishers,  and  the  Calaos,   or  Hornbills,   which  may   be 
readily  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  form   of  the    beak. 

6.  How  do  the  eche.lr.ttes  differ  from  the  Creepers  properly  so  called  ? 

7.  How    are    Humming-birds  characterised  ?  What    are   their  liahits 
Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?     What  are  ike  characters  of  the  Northern  Hum- 
ming-birds  ? 

8.  How  are  the  Hoopoes  distinguished  ? 

9.  How  are  birds  of  the  famiy  of  Syndactylae  characterised? 
10.  What  aie  the  pr.ncipal  genera  of  this  family  ? 

ac 


BEE.EATERS  --KINGFISHERS. 


In  the  Bee  eaters  it  is  of  moderate  size,  and  slightly  arcuate;  in 
the  Kingfishers,  long  and  straight,  and  in  the  Hornbills  of  a 
disproportionate  size,  and  surmounted  by  an  enormous  protu- 
berance. 

11  The  Ree-cnlerSi—MeropSt  —  have  a  moderate  sized  beak. 
which  is  trenchant,  pointed,  slightly  curved,  without  a  notch  or 
ooth,  and  with  an  elevated  edge;  their  nostrils  are  partly  con- 
cealed by  hairs  directed  forwards;  the  external  toe  is  joined  to 
the  middle  one  as  far  as  the  second  articulation,  and  the  latter  is 
joined  to  the  external,  as  far  as  the  first  articulation.  The  C<HH- 
m»n  life  eater,  —  Merops  apiaster,  -  the  only  one  found  in  Kurope, 
has  a  fawn  coloured  back,  a  deep  marine  blue  front  and  belly,  and 
a  yellow  throat  surrounded  by  black;  it  feeds  on  insects,  particu- 
larly wasps  and  bees,  which  it  seizes  while  on  the  wing.  It 
constructs  its  nests  in  the  precipitous  banks  of  streams  and  large 
rivers,  into  which  it  digs  to  considerable  depths 

12.  The  KINGFISHERS,  —  dlcedo,—  (Plate  3,  fig.  10.)—  have  a 
quadrangular  beak,  which  is  long,  straight,  pointed  and  trenchant  ; 
their  nostrils  are  almost  entirely  closed  by  a  naked  membrane  ; 
their  legs  are  short,  and  bare  to  above  the  knee.  The  only 
species  found  in  Europe  is  the  Jllcedo  ixpida,  —  it  is  rather  larger 
than  a  Sparrow,  and  is  green,  undulated  with  black  above,  with 
a  stripe  of  deep  marine  blue  along  the  back;  reddish  beneath, 
with  a  ribbon  of  the  same  colour  on  each  side  of  the  neck.  The 
American  species,  the  tidied  Kingfisher,  —  Alcedn  alcyon,  —  is 
crested,  and  of  a  bluish  slate  colour  ;  it  inhabits  all  the  northern 
part  of  the  American  continent.  His  delight  is  to  dwell  amidst 
the  most  sequestered  scenes,  on  the  borders  of  rivers  and  streams, 
abounding  in  small  fish  and  insects,  upon  which  he  feeds  By 
the  broken  or  rocky  bank  of  his  aquatic  retreat,  he  may  be 
frequently  seen  perched  on  some  dead  and  projecting  branch, 
scrutinizing  the  waters  for  his  expected  prey  ;  if  unsuccessful 
he  courses  along  the  stream,  just  above  the  surface,  and  occa- 
sionally hovers  for  an  instant,  with  rapidly  moving  wings,  over 
the  spot  where  he  perceives  his  gliding  quarry;  in  the  next 
instant,  descending  with  a  quick  spiral  sweep,  he  seizes  a  fish 
with  which  he  rises  to  his  post,  and  swallows  in  an  instant.  When 
startled  from  the  perch,  on  which  he  spends  many  vacant  hours 
digesting  his  prey,  he  utters  commonly  a  loud,  harsh,  and  grating 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Bee-eaters  ?     What  are  the  characters 
jf  the  Common  Bee-eater  ?     Whit  are  its  habits? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Kingfishers  ?     How  i^  the  European 
Kingfisher  characterised  ?     In  what  respects  does  the  Belted  KingfUhpi  differ 
from  the  European  species  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


HORN  BILLS.— CLIMBERS.  7! 


cry,  very  similar  to  the  interrupted  creakings  of  a  watchman's 
rattle,  and  almost,  as  it  were,  the  vocal  counterpart  to  the  watery 
tumult  amidst  which  he  usually  resides.  The  nest  is  burrowed 
in  some  dry  bank  above  the  reach  of  inundation,  to  a  depth  of 
five  or  six  feet.  The  female  lays  six  or  seven  white  eggs,  and 
is  assisted  by  the  male  in  the  incubation,  which  continues  about 
sixteen  days. 

13.  The  Calans,  or  flornhilh,—  Buct-ros, — are  large  birds  of 
India  and  Africa,  remarkable  for  their  enormous  dentated  beak, 
which  is  more  or  less  arcuate,  surmounted  by  a  crest  or  promi- 
nence, often  as  large  as  tne  beak  itself.  (Plate  3.  fig  12.)  These 
singular  birds  hunt  mice,  reptiles,  small  birds,  and  even  attack 
dead  bodies. 


ORDER    OF    SCANSORIJE     OR    ZYGODACTYLJE. 


14.  In   birds  of  this  order  the  external  toe  is  directed  back- 
wards like  the  thumb,   which  arrangement  gives  them  a  more 
solid  support,  and   of  which   some  genera  take  advantage   in 
clinging  to,  and  climbing  the  trunks  of  trees.  (Plate  4,  fiy.  5,  6, 
7,  and  10.)     It  is  from  this  circumstance  they  have  obtained  the 
common  name  of  Climttersj  although,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  not 
applicable  to  all  of  them,  as  there  are  many  birds  that  truly  climb, 
which,  owing  to  the  disposition  of  their  toes,  do  not   belong  to 
this  group.     Every  Nrd  that  has  two  toes  directed  forward,  arid 
two  backwards,  belongs  to  the  order  of  Scansoria3,  or  Climbers. 
The  habits  of  most  of  the  species  that  belong  to  it  are  not  known  ; 
and  they  vary  in  almost  every  genus 

15.  The  Climbers  generally  nest  in  the  hollows   of  old  trees; 
iheir  powers  of  flight  are  middling  ;   like  the  Passerinae  they  feed 
on   insects,  or  fruits  according  as  their  beak   is  more  or  less 
strong.     It   is  remarked   that  in   most  of  the   genera  that  the 
sternum  has   two   notches  Behind,    which    conformation    is    in 
accordance  with  the  little  strength  of  the  muscles  of  their  wings 

16.  The  principal  genera  may  be  distinguished  by  the  follow- 
ing characters  : 

1^.  What  are  Hornbills  ?     Where  are  they  found? 

14.  How  are  the  Scansorice  charactcri>ed  ?     Do  all  climbing  birds  belong 
\o  the  order  of  Seansoriae  ? 

15.  Upon  what  do  the  Scansoriae  feed  ?     Are  they  very  powerful  in  tnei* 


16.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  order  of  Scansoriae  7 


I   And  rounded;   tongue  very  exUnsibl;1,  i  ,,T 
I  but  without  spines.  \  W 

f  Moderate,  and  slightly  nrcuate,  J>  CUCKOOS. 


72    _  WOODPECKERS—  WRYNECKS  _ 

(Genera,) 
f  And  angular;   tongue  very  extensible,  (  WooDPFCincRa. 

and  armed  with  spines  at  the  tip.       \  W 
.      .*   C  Straight, 

K  f 

t«  "^ 
<  ^ 
c»  '£ 

,c   L  Arcuate,  «|    Large,  rounded  on  all  sides,  and  hooked,  ^PARROTS. 

^  Almost  as  long  as  the  body,  }•  TOUCANS. 

17.  The   WOODPECKERS,—  P/CMS,  —  are   distinguished  by  their 
long,  straight  black  beak,  which  is  adapted  for  piercing  the  bark 
of  trees  ;  by  their  slender  tongue,  armed  near  the  end  with  spines 
curved  backwards,  which  can  be  extended  considerably  beyond 
the  beak;  (Plate  1,  fig.  3.)  and  by  their  tail,  which  is  composed 
of  ten  quills  with  stiff  and  elastic  stalks,  which  serves  them  as  a 
support  when  they  climb  trees.  (Plated,  jig.  9.)     All  these  birds 
are  climbers,  and  have  a  family  likeness  to  each  other.     They  all 
have  the  habit  of  tapping  and  raising  up  the  bark  of  trees  to  seize 
the  insects  which  it  conceals,  and,  after  having  struck  on  one  side, 
of  quickly  running  to  the  opposite,  to  seize  the  insects,  which  the 
noise  may  have  caused  to  run  away      It  is  erroneously  believed 
that  they  can  in  this  way  pierce  trees  entirely  through.     Most 
Woodpeckers  are  marked  with  red,  either  on  the  head  or  body  ; 
almost  all  of  them  are  streaked  or  speckled  with  brown  on   the 
ground  colour  of  their  plumage      Their  cry  is  sharp,  and  their 
flight  heavy.     They  are  lean,  little  esteemed,  and  inhabit  all  parts 
of  the   world,   both   within  and   without  the  equatorial  regions, 
except  New  Holland.     There  are  several  species  of  Woodpeckers 
in  the  United  States,  the  most  common  of  which,  are  the  Flicker, 
or  Golden   Wiityed    Woodpecker,  —  Picus  uvratus,  —  and    Red- 
Headed   Woodpecker,  —  Pi  ens  eryth  >  ocepka  Ins. 

Birds  resembling  Woodpeckers  are  known,  which  have  but 
three  toes,two  of  which  are  directed  forward,  and  one  backwards. 

18.  The  WRYNECKS,  —  Ynnx,  —  (Plate  4,  fiy.  5.)  have  the  pro- 
tractile tongue  of  the  Woodpeckers,  but  without  the  spines  ;  their 
straight  and  pointed  beak   is  nearly  round,    without  any  well 
marked   angles,  and   is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  penetrate  and 
raise  the  bark  of  trees;  like  the  Woodpeckers,   they   live   on 
insects,  but  climb  much  less. 


17.  How  are  Woodpeckers  distinguished  ?  What  are  their  habits?    C'pon 
rhat  do  they  feed  •? 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Wrynecks? 


CUCKOOS.— TOUCANS 73 

,__  ^ ; . 

iJ.  The  European  WryitfcA, —  Yunx  torqitilla, — is  of  the  size 
of  a  lark;  it  is  brown  above,  streaked  in  little  blackish  waves, 
and  longitudinal  meshes  of  fawn  colour  and  black;  beneath  it  is 
whitish  with  transverse  blackish  stripes.  This  bird,  which  is 
solitary  in  its  habits,  loves  the  mountain  woods,  and  makes  its 
appearance  in  France,  in  May,  and  departs  again  in  September; 
without  making-  a  nest,  it  lays  in  holes  in  trees  soon  after  its 
arrival.  The  Wryneck  derives  its  name  from  a  habit,  which  is 
peculiar  to  it,  of  twisting  and  turning  the  neck  to  one  side,  an  1 
behind,  while  the  head  is  turned  towards  the  back  and  the  eyes 
half  closed. 

20.  The  CUCKOOS, — Cuculns, — have  a  moderate  beak,  well  cleft, 
and  slightly  arcuate ,  the  tarsi  are  short,  and  the  tail  long,  com- 
posed of  ten  quills.  (I'latr  4,  fiy   6.)     They  are  birds  of  passage, 
and   live  on  insects.     The  female  makes  no  nest,  and  takes  no 
care  of  her  young ;  she  deposites  her  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other 
birds,    most   frequently  in   that  of  the  Fan; cite.     The  strange 
nurse,  to  whom  the  Cuckoo  confides  her  eggrs,  becomes  not  only 
the  best  of  mothers  for  the  young  progeny  that  does  not  belong 
to  her,  but  to  take  care  of  them  she  neglects  her  own  eggs,  and 
only    hatches   a  part    of  them.     It  is  remarked  that  the  young 
Cuckoos  raise  up  the  young  ones  of  the  Fauvette,  and  push  them 
out  of  the  nest,  that  they  may  not  share  the  attentions   of  their 
common  nurse.     These  birds  remain  in  the  nest  more  than  three 
weeks  after  their  birth,  and  for  five  weeks   longer  their  adopted 
mother  supplies  them  with  food.     The  American  species,  on  the 
contrary,  are  faithfully    paired,  and  take'  care  of  their  young. 
The   Yellow- billed  Cuckoo,  Of  Haiti  Crow,  —  Cuculus  americauiis, 
— is  dark  grayish-brown,   with   bronzy   reflections,   and    white 
beneath. 

21.  TheToncANs,  — /fr/w/7/m.s7os, — (Plate  4,  fiy  10.)  are  easily 
recognised  by  their  enormous  beak,  which  is  almost  as  large  and 
as  long  as  the  body  ;  internally  it  is  light  and   cellular,    arcuate 
towards   the   end,    and  irregularly   dentate  on  the  edge ;  their 
nostrils,  which   are  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  are  concealed 
behind  the  horny  mass  that  sheathes  the  front.     Their  tonuue  is 
long,   narrow,  and   furnished  on    each  side  with  barbs,  like  a 
feather.     These  singular  animals  inhabit  only  the  hottest  parts  oi 
America ;  they  live  in  troops,  and  feed   on  fruits  and  insects. 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Wryneck?     What   are  its 
habits  ?     From  what  circumstance  do;  s  it  derive  its  name  ? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  Cuckoos  ?     What  are    the  habits    of  th« 
female  ?      How  does  the  American  differ  from  the  European  species  ? 

21.  How  are  Toucans  characterised  /     What  are  their  habits  ? 

2C* 


7-1  PARROTS. 


They  seek  the  nests  of  other  birds,  and  devour  their  eggs,  and 
their  recently  hatched  young.  When  they  obtain  their  prey,  they 
do  not  attempt  to  grind  it  in  their  beak,  because  its  structure  pre- 
vents; but  they  toss  it  into  the  air,  and,  receiving  it  as  it  falls, 
swallow  it  whole. 

22.  The  PARROTS,—  Psittacm,— (Plate  4,  fig.  7.  and  8  )  form 
a   genus,   numerous   in  species,   which  are  found  in  all  warm 
countries      They  have  a  lartie,  hard,  solid  beak,  which  is  rounded 
every  where,  and  surrounded  at  its  base  by  a  membrane  through 
which  the  nostrils  are  pierced  ;  their  tongue  is  thick,  fleshy,  and 
round  ;  their  feet  are  short  and  strong.     They  feed    on    fruits, 
and  climb  trees,  assisting  themselves  with  their  feet  and  beak. 
They   readily  become  familiar,  and  some  species   imitate    the 
human  voice  very  well ;  but  their  clamorous  disposition  renders 
then)  disagreeable  in  the  house. 

23.  The  plumage  of  Parrots  varies  in  colour;  it  is   generally 
remarkable  for  its  clear  and   vivid  tints:  frequently,  green  pre- 
dominates; while  in  certain  species,  on  the  contrary,  red  is  the 
prevailing  colour      From  their  intelligence,  these  birds  seem  to 
claim  a  place  at  the  head  of  their  class,  and  form  the  connecting 
link  between  it  and  the  superior  beings  in  the  scale   of  animals. 
They  learn  to  talk,  retain  airs,  and  are  in  short,   susceptible  of 
education  ;  they  convey  their  food  to  the  beak  with  their  claws ; 
they  are  frugivorous,  and  also  feed  on  buds,  tender  bark,  roots, 
arid  sweet  juices  of  plants.     This  genus  is  divided  into  Maccaws 
Paroquets,  Parrots  properly  so  called,  Cockatoos,  &c. 

24.  The  Maccaws, — jlrf',—(ljlate  4,  fiy.  7.)  have  a    wedge- 
shaped  tail,  which  is  longer  than  the  body,  a  strong  beak  and  a 
naked  face  ;  they  are  all  American.     The  Jira  aracari,  or  blue 
3/«tT«w,— is  one  that  is  most  frequently  seen  in  France,  where 
it  is  produced  in  the  domestic  state ;  it  is  from  thirty  to   thirty- 
two  inches  in  length.     All  the  upper  parts,  that  is,  the  top  of  the 
head,  the  back  of  the  neck,  the  back,  the  rump,  the  wings,  and 
all  the  top  of  the  tail  are  of  a  brilliant  azure  blue.     The  chest  and 
all  the  under  part  of  the  body  are  of  a  bright  yellow.     The  naked 
space  on  the  cheeks  is  of  considerable  extent,  and  is  of  a   rosy 
white  colour,  with  three  little  horizontal  lines  of  black  feathers ; 
the  throat  is  surrounded  by  a  broad  greenish  collar. 

25.  The  Paroquels,  also  have  a  wedge  shaped  tail,   which   is 
sometimes  longer  than  the  body,  sometimes  of  the  same  length, 

22.  How  are  Parrots  distinguished  ?     What  are  their  habits? 

23.  What  ie  the  colour  of  the  plumage  of  Parrots?     For  what  are  these 
birds  particularly  remarkab'e  ?     How  is  the  genus  of  Parrots  divided  ? 

24.  How  are  Maccaws  distinguished  ?     What  are  the   characters  of  thf 
Blue  Maccaw? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Paroquets? 


•       ORDER  OF  GALLINACE^E. 75 

and  sometimes  shorter ;  they  have  a  moderate  beak,  and  the  face 
is  ordinarily  feathered. 

26.  [The  Carolina  Parrot, — Psittacus  carolinensis,—  is  green  , 
the  head   and   neck   yellow  ;  forehead  and  cheeks  orange ;  tail 
elongated.     Of  the  more  than  two  hundred  known  species   of 
this  brilliant  genus,  it  is  the  only  one,  found  inhabiting  the  United 
States.     It  is  rarely  met  with  north  of  Virginia.] 

27.  The  Parrots  property  so  called,  have  a  short,  square  tail, 
a  stout  and  strongly  hooked    beak,  the  face  feathered,  a  large 
head,  and  a  stout  body.     They  all  inhabit  the  torrid  zone. 

28.  The    Graif    Carrot,    or    ,/acv;, —  Pxittac*H    erylhacus, — is 
entirely  ash-colour  with  a  red  tail.     It  is  originally  from  Africa, 
and  is  much  prized  on  account  of  its  gentleness,  its   attachment 
to  its  master,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  learns  to  speak. 

29.  The  name  of  Amazonian  Parrots  is  given  to   those  that 
are  very  large,  with  a  stout  body  and  green  plumage. 

30.  The  Cockatoos,  have  the  head  ornamented  with  a  tuft  of 
feathers.  (Plate,  4,  fig.  8.)     The  plumage  of  the  greater  number 
is  white,  and  of  all  the  various  species,  they  are  the  most  docile. 

LESSON    VI. 

ORDER  OP  GALLINACEJE. —  Zuol-gicdl  Characters. —  Habits. — 
Hoccos. — Peacocks,  (Common  Peacock.)  —  Turkey  — Guinea- 
fowl. —  Genus  of  Pheasants,  (The  Common  Cock,  Common 
Pheasant,  Golden  Pheasant.) — Genus  of  Grouse,  (The  Great 
Heath-cock,  Partridge,  Quail. — Genus  of  Pigeons. — Habits.— 
Carrier  Pigeons.  

ORDER    OF    GALLINACEJE. 

1.  The  Order  of  Gallinaceae  comprises  :  Those  terrestrial  birds 
which  have  a  short  or  moderate  beak,  vaulted  above  ;  the  nostrils 
pierced  through  a  membranous  space,  and  covered  by  a  cartila- 
ginous scale,  the  body  heavy,  and  the  wings,  in  general,  short. 

2.  These  birds  are  essentially  granivorous,  and   are  provided 
with  a  very  strong  muscular  gizzard  ;  they    delight  in  seeking 
their  food  on  the  ground  amidst  dust.    Their  sternum  is  weakened 
by  two  large  notches  which  occupy  its  posterior  part  on   each 
side;  their  inferior  larynx  is  very  simple,  and  not  one   of  them 
sings  agreeably. 

26.  What  is  the  Carolina  Parrot? 

27.  How  are  Parrots  properly  so  called,  distinguished? 

28.  For  what  is  the  Gray  Parrot  esteemed  ? 

29.  What  are  Amazonian  Panots? 

30.  What  are  Cockatoos? 

1.  What  hirds  are  comprised  in  the  Order  of  Gallinace®? 

2.  What  arc  the  general  characters  of  the  Gallinacese? 


7b      GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 

3.  Most  of  our  poultry  belongs  to  this  order ;  and    no    other 
affords  man  so  many  resources  for  his  wants  or  his   pleasures. 
The  flesh  of  many  of  the  Callinaceae  supplies  a  light  and  whole- 
some meat  which   nourishes  without  overloading  the  stomach. 
Their  feathers  are  applied  to  different  purposes ;  they  are  employed 
as  ornaments,  and  also  in  the  useful  arts      These  birds  are  almost 
all  from  the  warm  countries  of  both  continents. 

4.  This  order  is  divided  into  two  families,  as  follows: 

5.  first.  The  GALLINACEJE  PROPLRLY    so    CALLED,   having  the 
anterior  toes  united  at  their  base  by  a  short  membrane,  which  is 
dentate  on  the  edges  ;  the  tail  is,  generally,  composed  of  fourteen 
or  a  greater  number  of  quills. 

6.  Second.  The  PIGEONS,  having  the  toes  entirely  divided,  and 
the  tail, formed  of  twelve  quills. 

FAMILY  OF  GALLINACE.E  PROPERLY  SO  CALLED. 

7.  The  Gallinacea3  properly  so  called,  have  a  short,  convex 
brak  with  the  upper  mandible   arched   or  vaulted,  and  curved 
from  its  base  to   the  point ;  their  nostrils,  which  are    pierced 
through  a  broad  membranous  space,  are  covered  by  a   cartila- 
ginous scale ;  their  three  front  toes  are  united  by  a  short   mem- 
brane; the  posterior  toe  articulates  high  on  the  tarsus,  above  the 
articulations  of  the  anterior  toes :  sometimes,  though  rarely,  the 
posterior  toe  is  entirely  wanting,  or  it  is  very  small,  and  in  many 
species,  principally  in  the  male,  we  remark  on  the  posterior  part 
of  the  tarsus,  above  the  thumb,  a  process  or  projection  called  a 
spur,  formed  of  a  bony  spine,  covered  externally  with  horn,  more 
or  less  pointed,  according  to  the  species,  and  which  increases  in 
length  as  the  animal  advances  in  age.  (Piatr  4,  fig.  1 1,  and  Plate 
7,  fig.  15.)     The  tarsi  are  short  or  of  moderate  length,  and  the 
feet  are  adapted  for  running  or  walking.     These  birds  are  very 
heavy  ;  the  body  is  fleshy,  and  the  wings  short,  which,  with  the 
weakness  of  their  pectoral  muscles,  renders  their  flight  laborious. 
They  are  all  pitlverators,  that  is,  they  love  to  scratch  the  ground, 
and  wallow  in  the  dust;  they  generally    feed  on  grains,  some- 
times on  insects,  and  many  species,  on  berries  and    buds.     To 
swallow  fluids  when  introduced  into  the  beak,  they  elevate  their 
head  in  the  air.     The  females  live  in  troops  with  a  single  male. 
Their  nest  is  almost  always  made  without  art,  upon  the  ground, 
and  the  male  takes  no  part,  either  in  its  construction  or  in  the 

3.  To  what  uses  are  birds  of  this  order  applied? 

4.  How  is  this  order  divided? 

5.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Gallinacese  properly  so  called  ? 

6.  What  are  the  grcneral  characters  of  Pigeons  ? 

7.  How  aie  the  Gallinacese  properly  so  called  characterised  ?     What   ar« 
Iheir  habits  ? 


GALL  I NACEOUS  BIRDS. 77 

incubation  of  the  eggs,  the  number  of  which  is  generally  con- 
siderable.  So  soon  as  the  young  ones  escape  from  the  shell,  they 
walk,  eat  alone,  and  abandon  the  nest  to  follow  their  mother. 
They  remain  together  forming  a  family  until  the  following  spring, 
when  they  separate.  The  sexes  differ  very  much  from  each 
other  in  their  plumage,  at  least,  until  they  have  attained  an 
advanced  age,  when  the  female  sometimes  appears  in  the  plumage 
of  the  male,  which  is  more  brilliant ;  they  also  differ  in  size,  the 
female,  in  most  species  being  smallest. 

8.  The  principal  genera  composing  this  family  may  be  recog- 
nised by  the  following  characters: 

(•'allinaceae 
properly  so  called,  having  a  tail 


1    9 

r 

I 

*tJ 

•e  ^1 

Q 

I 

£.     3 

C 

g 

—         O« 

3 

S° 

a. 

cr 

^  A  

'•     ^ 

Cu 

H 

* 

s 

Q- 

Jf 

a. 
o 

o 

3 

ft 

C     3 

*^-                                                      i> 

tr^ 

3    Q- 

SOP 
-•  -^  3 

B' 

(D 

SS 

iflff 

^Nl 

£l 

J<9 

2 

o 

of  twelve  q 

namented 

i?^-2- 

a 

c 

a. 

*<  7  ^ 

09 

vT 

Sr 

6.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  Family    of  Gallinaccce  proper!? 
•o  called  '\ 


78 HOCCOS.— TURKEYS.— PEACOCKS. 

9.  The   Hoccos, — Elector,— are   large   gallinaceous   birds   of 
America,  analogous  to  Turkeys,  with  a  large   round  tail,    com- 
posed of  twelve  large,  stiff  quills;  their  beak  is    thick,    stout, 
compressed  at  the  sides,  surrounded  at  the  base   by  a  naked 
skin,  which  is  sometimes  gibbous ;  the  tarsi  are  elongate  and 
without  spurs  ;  they  have  four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind, 
the  latter  resting  a  part  of  its  length  on  the  ground.     These 
peaceful  birds  are  easily  tamed,  and  keep  in  great  forests  and  on 
mountains.     They  seek  their  food  on  the  ground,  and  perch  upon 
the  highest  trees      Some  nest  on  the  large  branches  of  trees,  and 
others  on  the  ground.     Their  nest  is  composed   externally  of 
dried  branches  and  moss,  and  internally  of  leaves;  they  lay  from 
two  to  eight  eggs.     In  some  parts  of  America  Hoccos  are  reared 
as  poultry.     Their  head  is  ornamented  with  a  tuft  of  elevated 
feathers  which  are  curled  at  the  end. 

10.  TURKEYS, —  MeU'ugris,  —  have  the  head  and  top  of  the  neck 
covered  by  a  papillated  skin  which  is  destitute  of  feathers  ;  under 
the  throat,  there  is  an  appendage  which  hangs  from  the  neck,  and 
on  the  front,  another  conical  appendage  which  lengthens  and 
swells  in  the  malo  during  excitement.     A  pencil  of  stiff  hairs  or 
bristles  hangs  from  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  of  the  male;  the 
tail  coverts,  which  are  shorter  and  stiffer  than  in  the  Peacock, 
can  be  erected  iti  the  same  manner,  so  as  to  form  a  circle ;  the 
males  have  feeble  spurs.     Turkeys,  of  which  only   two  species 
are  known,  are  originally  from   America,    whence   the   Jesuit 
missionaries  introduced  them  into  Europe,     The   first   Turkeys 
appeared  in  France  in    1570,  and  were  served  at  the  wedding 
of  Charles  IX.     They  have  been   naturalised  in  all  climates  on 
account  of  the  excellence  of  their  flesh. 

1 1.  PEACOCKS, — Paro, — have  a  moderate,  conical,  curved  beak, 
which  is  naked  at  the  base;  the  superior  mandible  is  convex  and 
vaulted ;  the  head,  which  is  covered  with  feathers,  is  ornamented 
with  a  crest ;  the  tarsi  are  armed  behind   with  a  conical  spur ; 
but  the  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  these  birds  is,  that  the 
upper  tail  coverts  in  the  male,  are  lon^r  than  the  quills,  and  may 
be  elevated  when  he  spreads  his  tail.      The  Common  Peacock, — 
Pavo  crintatus,— has  the  head   crowned  with  a  crest  of  twenty- 
four  straight  feathers,  and  the  feathers  of  the  runip,  which  have 
a  floating  or  loose  beard,  are  of  unequal  size,  being  shorter  in 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  Hoccos  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

10.  How  are  Turkeys  character! -ed  ?     To  what   part   of  the    world  are 
they  indigenous  ?     When  were  Turkeys  first  used  in   France  ? 

11.  How  are  Peacocks  characterised  ?     What   are  the    characters  of  the 
Common  Peacock  ?     Are  they  found  wild  in  any  part  of  the  world  ? 


PINTADOS.— PHEASANTS.  79 


proportion  as  they  are  superior,  and  each  one  is  terminated,  by 
numerous  brilliant  metallic  circles  ;  the  female  is  destitute  of  this 
ornament,  the  richness  and  beauty  of  which,  known  throughout 
the  world,  are  bvyond  description,  particularly  when  the  bird 
spreads  its  tail.  The  Peacock  is  still  widely  diffused  in  the  wild 
state,  in  the  north  of  India,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  Indian 
archipelago. 

12.  The   PINTADOS,  or  GUINEA-FOWLS, — Numida,  —  (Plate.  5, 
fig.  1.)  have  a  naked  head  with  fleshy  wattles  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  cheeks,   and  the  cranium   is  generally  surmounted  by  a 
callous  crest;  their  feet   are  without  spurs;  their  tail  is   short 
and  pendent ;  and  the  feathers   of  the  rump  give   the  body  a 
rounded  form. 

13.  All  the  Pintados  are  originally  from  Africa;  they   live    in 
numerous  troops  under  bushes,  and  in  copses,  where  they  seek 
berries  and    small  snails  on  which  they    feed.     The  European 
species   have    been  transported   to   the    New  World,  where,  in 
many  places,  they  have  become  naturalised  in  the  wild  state. 

14.  PHEASANTS,  —  I'ltasianus, — (f/ate  4,   ftp.    11.)  are   naked 
around  the  eyes,  and  the  cheeks  are  covered  by  a  red  skin,  or  by 
very  short  feathers;  they  have  no  crest,  and  the. lower  mandible 
is  without  wattles;  the  tail  quills,  eighteen  in  number  in  most  ot 
the  species,  are  placed  on  each  other  in  two  layers  like  shingles 
on  the  roof  of  a  house,  or  in  other  words,  the  tail  is  tectiform, 
and  maintained  in  a  horizontal  position. 

This  genus  is  divided  into  many  sub-genera,  among  which  we 
will  cite  the  Cocks,  and  Pheasants  properly  so  called. 

15  The  Cocks,  —  Gallns, — have  a  beak  naked  at  the  base, 
furnished  with  two  pendent  and  compressed  caruncles ;  the  head 
is  surmounted  by  a  fleshy  crest,  or  a  bundle  of  feathers ;  the 
tarsi  are  armed  with  long,  curved  spurs,  and  only  the  end  of  the 
thumb  rests  on  the  ground;  the  wings  are  short;  the  quills  of 
the  tail,  fourteen  in  number,  form  two  vertical  planes,  placed 
back  to  back ;  in  the  male  the  coverts  of  the  latter  are  prolonged 
into  an  arch  over  the  tail  proper. 

16.  The  Common  (7»>c#, —  tJ/iasianus  gallus,—  the  female  of 
which  is  called  a  Hen,  is  originally  from  India  •  it  is  still  met 
with  wild,  in  the  mountains  of  Ilindoostan,  but  in  the  domestic 

\'2.  How  are  Guinea-fowls  characterised  ? 

13  To  what  country  did  the  Pintados  origin  illy  beloirr  ?  Wh  .t  are  their 
he  hits  f 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  Pheasants? 

15.  How  »re  the  Cocks  characterised? 

16.  To  what  country  does  the  Common  Cock  belong  7 

7* 


80  PHEASANTS. 


state,  it  is  spread  throughout  the  world.     There   exists   a   great 
number  of  varieties  of  it. 

17.  The  Pheasants  vrnprtly  so  c<  llei,  have  a  loner,  cuneiform 
tail,  each  of  the  quills  of  which  being  inclined  on  two  planes,  cover 
each  other  like  the  shingles  of  a  roof.     To  this  group  belongs 
the  Common  Piieagnnt  of  Europe,  which  is  also  originally  from 
Asia,  and  which  is  also  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  plumage. 
In  the  male,  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck 
are  of  a  silver  gray,  which,  in  the  reflections  of  light,    seems  to 
change  to  blue      The  feathers  of  the  che.-t,  of  the  shoulders,  of 
the  middle  of  the  brick,  as  well  as  those  of  the  sHes  beneath  the 
wings,  have  a  blackish  ground  with  purple  edges  on  transverse 
lines  of  gold  colour  ;  the  plumage  of  the  female  is  not  so  beautiful 
as  that  of  the  male :  the  iris  is  yellow  and  the  eyes  are  placed 
between  two  parts  which  are  of  a  scarlet  colour.     It  is  said,  that 
the   Pheasant    was   originally  introduced   into  Europe    by    the 
Argonauts  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Phasis  in  Asia  Minor. 

18.  The    Golden.    I'hrasant, —  lj/n-sianins  picfns, —  (  Plate.  4. 
fig.  11.)  comes  from  China      It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  birds 
known ;  the  belly  is  of  a  bright  red ;  a  tuft  of  golden  yellow 
reclines  from  the  top  of  the  head  ;  the  neck  is  surrounded  by  a 
magnificent  orange  collar,  sprinkled  with   black;  the  upper  part 
of  the  back  is  green,  and  the  lower  part,  as  well  as  the  rump,  is 
yellow;  the  wings  are  bright  red  with  a  beautiful  spot  of  blue; 
the  tail,  which  is  very  long,  is  brown,  spotted  with  gray. 

19.  The  Argmtj  —  Pfmsianus  aigus, — comes  from  the  south  of 
Asia.     The  head  and  neck  are  nearly  naked  ;  the  tarsi  are  with- 
out spurs,  and  the  secondary  feathers  of  the  wings   are  covered 
with  eye-like  spots,  which,  when  the  wings  are  spread,  give  the 
bird  a  remarkable  appearance 

20    No  true  Pheasant  has  yet  been  discovered  in  America. 

21.  The  (rronse, —  7J#truo,  —  are  recognised  by  a  naked  and, 
ordinarily,  red  strip,  that  occupies  the  place  of  the  eye-brow.  They 
are  very  numerous  and  are   divided  into  many  sub-genera,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  following: 

22.  1st.  The  Heath-Gwfis,  have  the  tarsi  covered  with  feathers 
and  without  spurs,  the  toes  naked,  and  the  tail  round  or  forked  : 


17.  How  are  Pheasants  properly  so  called,  characterised?     From    what 
part  of  the  world  is  the  true  Pheasant  derived  ?  i 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  ihe  Golden  Pheasant? 
'9.  How  is  the  Aryus  recognised? 

20.  Is  there  any  true  Phea-ant  in  America? 

21.  How  is  the  genus  of  Grouse  recognised?     What   are   the    principal 
sul».genera  ? 

22.  HuW  may  the  Heath-cocks  be  known  ? 


GROUSE. 


23.  2nd    The  Ptarmigans,  or  White  Grouse,  which  have  the 
toes  feathered  as  well  as  the  legs ; 

24.  3d.  The  Partridge*,  the  tarsi  of  which  are  naked  like  the 
toes,  and  armed,  only  in  the  male,  with  short  spurs,  or  simple 
tubercles ; 

25.  4th.  The  Quails,  which  also  have   naked  tarsi  without 
spurs,  and  in  which,  the  eye-brow  is  not  red. 

26.  The  Heath-Cocl<s  —  Tetrao,—are  for  the  most  part  birds 
of  large  size  ;  there  is  one  species  in  France  which  is  larger  than 
the  Turkey,   and  even  larser  than  any  other  gallinaceous  bird. 
The  Great.  Heath-cock,  —  Tttrao  vroualhis, — (Plate  5,  fiy.    3.) 
The  plumage  of  the  male  is  slate  colour,  finely  and  transversely 
striped  with  black ;  the  female,  which  is  a  third  smaller,  is  fawn 
colour,    with   transverse,   black   or   brown    lines.     The  young 
resemble  the  female  up  to  the  first  moulting.     This  bird  is  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  Russia,  Siberia,  and  generally  in  all 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  and  is  more   rare  in 
Germany,   Hungary,  and  France.     It  always  lives  in  the  same 
place,  inhabiting  through  preference,  mountain  forests,  and  feeds 
chiefly  on  berries,  buds,  young  shoots,  grains,  insects  and  worms. 
Its  flesh  is  delicious. 

27.  [The  Ruffed  Grouse,— Tctrao  umb<>llus,—\s  mottled;  the 
tail  is  gray  or  ferruginous,  speckled  or  barred   with   black  ;  the 
male  has  a  ruff  of  broad  black  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck ; 
in  the  female  the  ruff  is  smaller  and  dusky  brown.     It  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Pheasant,  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  and 
by  that  of  Partridge  in  New  England.     It  inhabits  the  American 
continent  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Georgia,  but   is  most  abundant 
in  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  the  United  States.     It  feeds 
chiefly  on  berries. 

28.  The  Pinnated  Grouse, —  Tetrao  cupido, — is  partly  crested 
and  mottled  ;  and  the  tail  is  rather  short  and  much  rounded. 
The  Grouse,  or  Prairie-Hen,   is  confined  to   dry,   barren,    and 
bushy  tracts  of  small  extent,  and  in  several  places   it   is    now 
nearly  or  wholly  exterminated.     It  is  still  met  with  on  the  Grouse 
Planes  of  New  Jersey,  on  the   Bushy  Planes  of  Long  Island,  in 

23.  What  are  the  generic  characters  of  the  Ptarmigans? 

24.  How  are  the  Partridges  recognised  ? 

25.  How  are  the  Quails  recognisi  d  ? 

2G.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Heath-cocks?  What  are  the 
characters  of  the  Great  Heath-Cock  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  What  are  its 
habits  ?  Upon  what  does  it  feed  ? 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Ruffed  Grouse  'I     Where  is  it  found  t 
By  what  other  names  is  it  known  ? 

28.  Where  is  the  Prairie-Hen  found? 


82    GROUSE— PARTRIDGES. 

similar  shrubby  barrens  in    Connecticut,  and  in   the   Island    of 
Martha's  Vineyard,  on  the  south  side  of  Massachusetts  Bay.] 

29.  The   PtttrwiganSt  or    White  (-irouse, —  Luyojms, —  have  a 
round  or  square  tail,  and  often  become  white  in  winter.     [The 
Ptarmigan, —  Tvtrao  lagopns, — constantly  resides  in  the  coldest 
arctic   deserts,  and   in  the  lofty  mountains  of  Central  Europe, 
where,  as  the  snow  begins  to  melt  away,  it  seeks  out  its  frozen 
bed,  by  ascending  to  the  limits  of  eternal  ice.     It  is  common  to 
the  extreme  northern  regions  of  both  the  old  and  new  continent. 
It  feeds  on  many  kinds  of  berries,  heath,  young  shoots  of  pine, 
and    occasionally   eats   a  few    insects.     To   protect  themselves 
against  the  entreme  cold  of  the  climate,  Ptarmigans  dwell  in  the 
snow.     As  soon  as  they  leave  their  frozen  retreats  in  the  morn- 
ing, they  fly  vigorously  upward  into  the  air,  shaking  the  snow 
from  their  warm  and  white  clothing.     They  are  much  esteemed 
as  food  in  every  country  where  they   occur,  and  are  commonly 
taken  in  nets.     Between  the  months  of  April  and  May,  it  is  said, 
that  as  many  as  ten  thousand  are  taken  for  the  use  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  settlement ;  and  in  Europe,  during  the  winter,  they 
are  carried  in  thousands  to  the  markets  of  Norway.] 

30.  Partridges  live  in  pairs,  and  keep  on  the  ground.     Two 
species  of  Partridge  are  common  in  France:  the  gray  and   the 
red.     The    Gray    Partridge,—  Tetiao   tim-rens, — keeps    in    the 
fields;  it  is  ashy  brown  elegantly  mingled  with  black;  the  tail  is 
short  and  the  legs  are  of  a  greenish   white;  the  beak  and  feet 
are  ash-colour.     In  young  Partridges  there  is  observed,  between 
eye  and  ear,  a  naked  skin  which  is  of  a  brilliant  scarlet.     The 
male  has  on  the  breast  a  cht-stnur  coloured   spot    in  the  form 
of  a  horse  shoe.     The  female  is  distinguished  by  less  brilliant 
and  less  marked  colours.     She  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen  eggs, 
and  makes  a  nest  on  the  ground  of  dry  leaves  and  moss.     The 
young  ones  run  the  moment  they  escape  from  the  shell,  a  part 
of  which    they  frequently  drag  after  them.     It  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  they  place  the  eggs  of  a  Partridge  under  a  hen,  who 
sits  upon,  and  takes  care  of  them  as  if  they  were  her  own. 

31.  The  Red  Partridge, —  Tettao  riifu.s. — has   the  beak    and 
feet  red;  it  prefers  to  keep  on  hills  and  elevated  places;  its  flesh 
is  whiter  than  that  of  the  gray  Partridge. 

32.  [.American   Partridges,  —  Onyx,  —  have  the  beak  short, 
thick,  .higher  than  it  is  wide  ;  the  upper  mandible  curved  fro***  the 

29.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Ptarmigan  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Gray  Partridge  of  Europe  ? 

31  How  is  the  Red  Parridge  distinguished  ? 

32  What  are  the  characters  of  American  Partridges  ? 


QUAILS.— PIGEONS.  8.1 


base,  no  naked   space  around  the  eye;  the  nostrils  half  closed 
by  a  membrane.     The  tarsus  is  destitute  of  spur  or  tubercle. 

33.  These  birds  alight  on  low  trees  or  bushes,  sometimes  roost 
ing  in  them;  they  also  dwell  on  the  ground,  both  by  night  and  day 
They  are  usually  monogamous,  the  male  taking  charge  of,  and 
protecting  the  young,  which  associate  with  the  old  until  the  time 
of  pairing.     These  are  peculiar  to  America. 

34.  The  American,  Partridge,  or  Quail, — Ortt/x  virginiana  — 
is   without  a  crest ;  the  plumage  cinnamon  brown,  varied  with 
black  and  whitish ;  throat  white,  bounded  with  a  black  crescent ; 
beak  black ;  tfte  feet  ash  colour.  Though  the  Partridges  of  America 
are  exceedingly  prolific,  they  have  been  so  thinned  in  some  parts 
of  the  country,  that  sportsmen,  acquainted  with  their  local  attach- 
ments, have  been  known  to  introduce  them  into  places  for  breed- 
ing, to  prevent  their  threatened  extermination.] 

35.  The  Quails. — Cntnrnix, — are  smaller  than  Partridges,  and 
have  a  shorter  tail.     The   Common  Qnail  of  Europe, —  Tetrno 
cotitrnix, —  has  a  brown  back,  waved  with  black  and  dotted  with 
white,  a  brown  throat,  and  a  whitish  eye-brow.    The  female  makes 
a  nest  like  the  partridge;  she  lays  six  or  seven  eggs   which  are 
of  a  gray   colour   with  brown  spots.     They  are  hatched  at  the 
end  of  about  three  weeks. 

36.  Quails  are  birds  of  passage,  and  celebrated  for  their  migra- 
tions; they  are  found  throughout  Europe,  and  in  most  parts   of 
the  United  States      In  the  autumn,  they  pass  in  immense  troops 
from  Europe,  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  coast  of  Africa; 
they  return  in  the  spring,  and  at  that  time  they  rest   on  some 
one  of  the  Islands  of  the  archipelago. 

FAMILY  OF  PIGEONS. 

37.  The   PIGEONS, — Coluiuba, — are  regarded   as  forming  the 
natural  link  or  transition  between  the  Passerinae  and  GallinaceaB. 

38.  Pigeons  have  a  moderate,  compressed,  straight,  vaulted 
beak,  which  is  curved  at  the  point,  (I'late5,  fly.  4. ;)  their  nostrils 
are  in  the  middle  of  the  beak,  pierced  through  a  soft  skin  and 
covered  by  a  cartilaginous  scale  which  is  inflated  or  bulged  at 
the  base  of  the  beak ;  their  feet  are  frequently  red ;  they  have 
three  toes  in  front,  which  are  entirely  separate,  and  a  posterio** 

33    What  are  their  habits? 

34.  What    aie  the   characters  of  the    American    Partridge    or    Quail  T 
Whether  is  it  migratory  or  sedentary  in  its  habits? 

35.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  European  Quail  ? 

36.  What  are  the  h  .bits  of  Quails? 

37.  What  relation  do  Pigeons  bear  to  the  Passerinae  and  Gallinacece  ? 

38.  What  are  the  characters  of  Pigeons?     What  are  their  habits? 


84  PIGEONS. 


toe  which  is  articulated  upon  the  same  plane  as  the  others.  They 
fly  well,  and  differ  very  much  from  the  Common  (ra/finacpce  in 
their  habits.  When  they  drink,  they  do  not  elevate  the  head 
as  the  latter  do,  and  they  ordinarily  perch  on  trees.  These  birds 
always  live  in  a  state  of  monogamy,  and  the  male  never  leaves 
his  female  companion.  They  evince  great  mutual  tenderness 
and  express  it  by  frequently  caressing  each  other,  and  by  the 
accents  of  their  voice,  the  modulation  and  tone  of  which  have 
been  designated  by  the  term  cooing.  Both  unite  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  nest,  and  place  it,  according  to  the  species,  sometimes 
on  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  amongst  busies,  or  even  on 
the  ground,  and  other  times  in  the  cavities  of  rocks  This 
nest,  coarsely  constructed  of  small  branches  and  leaves,  is 
very  open,  and  ordinarily  receives  only  two  eggs,  upon  which 
the  male  and  female  alternately  sit.  One  of  these  two  eggs 
usually  gives  birth  to  a  male,  and  the  other  to  a  female :  and 
these  two  individuals  being  reared  together  remain  forever  after 
paired.  They  feed  their  young  by  disgorging  into  their  little 
throats,  grains  macerated  in  their  own  stomach,  and  which  they 
cause  to  regurgitate  into  the  beak  by  a  kind  of  contraction. 

39.  These  birds  form  but   a   single  genus;  among  the  wild 
species  in  Europe  are  the  Cushat,  the  Rock  Dove,  and  the  Turtle 
Dove. 

40.  Pigeons  are  reared  in* vast  numbers  in  the  domestic  state; 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  races  is  the  Garner  Pigeon,  which  is 
distinguished  from  all  others,   by   a  broad   naked   band  which 
surrounds  the  eye,  and  its  deep  black  plumage ;  it  is  remark- 
able for  its  rapid  flight,  and  for  the  singular  faculty  it  possesses  of 
again  finding  the  place  where  it   was    born,  or  where  it  left 
its  young,  after  having  been  carried  to  very  great  distances.     It 
has  been  often  employed  to  convey  letters,  and  it  has  been  known 
to  make  a  journey  of  upwards  of  a  hundred  leagues  in  a  few  hours. 

41.  [Among  the  American  species,  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
Passfinger  Pigeon, — C»ln.mba  migrutaria, — which  is  bluish  gray, 
with  a  white  belly  and  black  tail      The  wild  Pigeon  of  America, 
it  is  estimated,  can  fly  several  hundred  miles  at  the  rate  of  a  mile 
a  minute.     The  whole  species  seems  to  be  always  congregated  in 
one  huge  flock,  composed  of  millions  of  individuals ;  and   they 
remain  in  one  locality  for  several  years,  and  then  leave   it   from 
dearth  of  food,   which  appears  to  be  the  sole  cause  that  deter- 
mines their  migrations.     They  feed  on  acorns  and  berries] 

39.  What  number  of  gene/a  constitutes  the  family  of  Pigeons'? 

40.  What  are  tlie  characters  of  the  Carrier  Pigeon  ?   Flow  is  it  employed  ? 

41.  What   are   the   characters   of  the  Passenger  Pi jjeori  ?     What  are  Ui 
fobita? 


WADING  BIRDS.  85 


LESSON    VII. 

ORDER  OF  GRALLATORIJB. —  Zoological    Characters.  —  Habits.— 

Division  into  eight  Families. 
FAMILY  OF  BREVIPPENNES. — Ostrich. — Organization. — Habits.-— 

Cassowaries. 

FAMILY  OF  PRESSIROSTRES. —  Bustards. — Plovers. — Lapwings. 
FAMILY  OF  CULTRIROSTRES. —  Cranes,  {Common  Crane,} — Herons^ 

(Common  Heron.) — Storks,  (Common  Stork.) — Spoonbills. 
FAMILY  OF  LONGIROSTRES. —  Genus   of   Curlews. — Ibis,   (  Sacred 

Ibis.) — Snipe,  (  Woodcock,  Common  Snipe.) — The  rfvosets. 
FAMILY  OF  MACRODACTYLI. — Kails. —  Water-Hens. 
FAMILY  OF  FLAMINGOS. — Common  Flamingo  — Habits. 


ORDER    OF    GRALLATORLS. 

1.  The  Order  of  Grallatoriae  is  composed  of  birds  that   have 
the  lower  part  of  the  leg  naked  like  the  tarsus,  (Plate  5,  fig. 
5,  to  11.)     Almost  all  these  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  length 
of  their  legs,  and  appear  as  if  they  were  mounted  on  stilts.  Their 
feet,  most  generally,   have  a   small  palmate  membrane  betwixt 
the    external  toes,  and   they  sometimes    are  without  a  thumb. 
Their  form  is  ordinarily  lank,  and  their  neck  is  very  long  ;  their 
beak  varies  in  its  shape,  but  is  also,  in  general,  very  long. 

2.  Most  of  the  Grallatoriae,  which  are  also  called  Waders,   or 
beach  birds,  frequent  watery  places,  and  wade  in  shallow  waters 
to  seek  their  food  ;  with  some  exceptions,  they  all  feed  on  animal 
sub.ttances,  and  seek  fishes,  reptiles,  or  worms  and  insects,  accor- 
ding as  their  beak  is  strong  or  weak ;  a  small  number  of  them 
feed  on   grains  and   herbage,  and  these  only  live  remote  from 
water.     And  almost  all  these  birds  have  very  long  wings;  they 
fly    well,  and  extend  their  legs    behind   them  when  they  fly, 
whereas,  other  birds,  on  the  contrary,  fold  them  under  the  belly. 

3.  The  Grallatoriae,  which  build  their  nests  on  trees,  and   in 
elevated  situations,  are  monogamous,  and  feed  their  young  until 
they   are  able   to  fly :  almost  all  those  that  build  on  the  ground 
are  polygamous,  and  their  young  seek  their  own  food  soon  after 
birth. 

1.  Wh  it  are  the  general  characters  of  those  birds  that  belong  to  the  ordci 
of  Gralhtorise  ? 

2.  What  are  the  general  habits  of  the    Grallatoiiae    or    Waders?     Upon 
what  do  they  feed  ? 

H.  In  what  respect  do  the  monogamous  differ* from  the  polygamous  GraJ- 
latorue? 


86 ORDER  OF  GR  \LLATORLE. 

4  This  order  is  composed  of  five  principal  families,  and  three 
small  isolated  groups,  which  differ  too  much  from  the  other 
Grallatoriae,  to  be  comprised  in  the  preceding  divisions,  and  may, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  forming  so  many  separate  families. 

5.  The  five  principal  families,  which  are  characterised  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  the  beak,  are  the  Brevipennes,  the  Pressiros- 
tres,  the  Cultrirostres,  the  Longirostres,  and  the  Macrodactyli. 

6.  The  three  accessory  families^ each  one  of  which  is   formed 
of  a  single  genus,  are  the  SheattS>ills,  or  Vaginals,  the  Glarioles, 
and  Flamingos. 

These  different  groups  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
Characters  :  GRALLATORI*.  having  wing. 

^F~  ~~3 

of5  c  ° 

^J  "-*}  ""S  2L 

^       ?5  •* 

(nT^1  §» 


r 


I 

g  P  °S  ,  3  g 

Is-  , — - — ,  -  irl 

|3       9      ffi          g  g.  oSS 

Si  -1  I  str   i  ^If 

i-?^  I  iU 

i  •  -  1^1  in 

D-          •  Hi          D*          3  *  Q.          O 

«  rt>  c   -—     3  .       »     3 


Sa'^O  C^O^J^  W 

^^  r^          c  C  r^  !>  SO  *" 

III  I    III    1 

o          Q        »  o          r1       r          o 

>QO  WRCOg  5 

a     ?    ^  3     .M  ••     g 

3  M  r-D 


4.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  order  of  Grallatorise  divided  ? 

5.  What  are  the  principal  families  ? 

6.  What  are  the  accessory  families  ? 


OSTRICHES.  8T 

FAMILY  OF  BREViPPENNES. 

7.  The  Brevipennes  (Plate,  5,  fig.  5.)  are  very   large  birds 
that  are  entirely  incapable  of  flying,  and  have  rudimentary  wings 
only ;  but  they  are  remarkable  for  the  strength  of  their  posterior 
extremities,  which  renders  them   excellent   runners.     Here,  the 
muscles  of  the  chest   not  being  required,  as  is  the  case  in  other 
birds  to  make  the  strong  efforts  necessary  to  depress  the   wings 
during  flight,  are  very  small,  and  there  is  no  projecting  keel  in 
the  middle  of  the  sternum  for  their  attachment,  as  in  other  birds ; 
this  bone  is  in  the  form  of  a  simple  shield.     It  is  to  be  observed 
also,  that  all  the  Brevipennes  want  the  thumb,  and  that,  both  in 
the  form  of  their  beak  and  in  their  regimen,  they  are  very  analo- 
gous to  the  Gallinaceae.     This  family  is  composed  of  two  genera: 
the  Ostriches  and  the  Cassowaries.     The  first  have  broad,  flexi- 
ble feathers,  and  the  second  are  covered  with  narrow,  stiff  plumes, 
almost  like  bristles. 

8.  OSTRICHES, — Slruthio, — (Plate  5.  jig.  5.)    are   very   large 
birds  with  long  legs  and  tarsi,  a  long  slender  neck,  and  a  very 
small   head  ;  they  have  only  rudimentary  wings,  composed   of 
loose,   flexible  feathers  with  isolated  barbs,  which  are  entirely 
unsuitable  for   flight,   but   which  these  animals  make  use  of  in 
running      The  beak,  which  is  of  moderate  length,  is  soft  at  the 
end  ;  the  eye  is  large  and  the  lids  are    fringed   with  eye-lashes; 
the  tongue,  is  short  and   rounded  like  a   crescent;  the  crop  is 
enormous,  the  gizzard  very  strong,  and  the  intestines  volumi- 
nous ;  and  above  the  cloaca  their  is  a  sort  of  large  reservoir  in 
which  the  urine  accumulates  as  in  a  bladder ;  and   this   is   the 
only  bird  that  urinates. 

9.  Two  species  of  Ostriches  are  known:  one,  proper  to  the 
eastern  continent,  and  characterised  by  having  only  two    toes  ; 
the  other,  proper  to  America,  which  is  recognisable   by   having 
three  toes. 

10  The  Ostrich  of  the  Eastern  Continent, — Stnithio  cameivs, 
— (l^latt*.  5,  fiy.  5.)  is  the  largest  of  birds  ;  it  attains  six  or  seven 
feet  in  height  and  weighs  as  much  as  eighty  pounds;  the  head 
and  neck  are  thinly  covered  with  feathers  ;  the  back,  breast  and 
belly  are  covered  with  black  mingled  with  white  and  gray 
leathers,  and  those  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  white;  the  thighs 
are  almost  as  naked  as  the  neck,  and  of  the  two  toes  which  termi< 


7.  What  are  iho  characters  of  the  Brpvipennes? 
S.   What  are  the  characters  of  O.-triches  ? 

9.  How  many  species  of  Ostriches  are  known  ?     How   are   they    rii  tia- 
guished  ? 

10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Ostrich  of  the  eastern  continent? 

8 


OSTRICHES.— CASSOWARIES. 

nate  the  foot,  the  external  one  is  but  half  the  length  of  the  other, 
and  without  a  nail. 

11.  This  bird  lives  in  numerous  troops  on  the  sandy  deserts 
of  Africa  and  Arabia ;  it  is  essentially  herbivorous,   but  it   is  so 
voracious  that  it  indiscriminately  devours   everything  that   falls 
within   its   reach  until   its  stomach  is  filled ;  it  even   swallows 
stones,  fragments  of  metal,  pieces  of  wood,  and  animal   as  well 
as  the  vegetable  substances  upon  which  it  feeds  ;  the  strength  of 
its  stomach  is  enormous.     It   can   run   more   rapidly  than    the 
fleetest  horse.     The  strength  of  this  animal  is  astonishing ;  an 
Ostrich  with  two  men  on  its  back  has  been  known  to  run  faster 
than  an  excellent  English  courser. 

12.  The  eggs  of  the  Ostrich  weigh  nearly  three  pounds  each; 
in  those   countries   which  are  not  very  warm,  the  female,  and 
even  the  male  sits  upon  them  ;  but  on  the  burning  deserts  near  the 
equator,  they  leave  them  in  the  sand,  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the 
sun.     The  period  of  incubation  seerns  to  be  about   six  weeks, 
and  the  young  are  feathered  when  born  and  able  to  run  at  once. 

13.  The  broad  flexible  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail  of  the 
African  Ostrich  are  much  prized  as  ornaments. 

14.  The  rfmericvn,  or  Three-toed  Ostrich, — Struthio  rhea, — 
Is  more  than  one  half  smaller  than  that  of  the  eastern  continent ; 
its  plumage  is  grayish,  and  the  feathers  are  scarcely  of  any  value. 
It  abounds  in  Buenos  Ayres. 

15.  The   CASSOWARIES, — Casuarius, — are  recognised   at  first 
sight  by  the  feathers,  the  barbs  of  which  being  so  lightly  fringed 
that  at  a  distance  they  resemble  pendent  hairs;  their   wings  are 
even  shorter  than  those  of  the  Ostrich,  and  are  totally  useless 
even  in  cunning. 

16  Two  species  are  known,  namely;  the  Emeu,  or  crested 
Cassowary,  and  the  Cassowary  of  New  Holland. 

17.  The  Emeu,  or  Crested  Coswwary,  —  Struthio  casuarins, — 
is  almost  as  large  as  the  Ostrich  of  the  eastern  continent,  but 
not  so  tall ;  it  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  azure  blue  and 
red  skin  that  covers  the  head  and  part  of  the  neck  ;  for  its  pen- 
dent caruncles  like  those  of  a  Turkey,  and  for  a  sort  of  helmet 
or  crest,  formed  by  a  bony  prominence,  covered  with  horn,  which 

11.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Ostrich  of  the  old  world  ? 

12.  What  is  the  size  of  the  eggs  of  the  Ostrich  ? 

13.  The  fathers  of  whit  part  of  the  Ostrich  are  used  for  ornament? 

14.  How  dues  the  American  Ostrich  differ  from  the   Ostrich    of  the  old 
world  ? 

15.  How  are  the  Cassowaries  recognised  ? 

16.  What  spec  ies  of  Cassowary  are  known  ? 

17.  Whiit  are  the  characters  of  the  Emeu  ? 


BUSTARDS.  89 


surmounts  the  head.  The  feathers  of  the  body  are  black,  and 
for  the  most  part  double.  It  runs  almost  as  rapidly  as  the  Ostrich. 
It  inhabits  the  Indian  archipelago. 

18.  The  Cassowary  of  New  Holland, — Casuariug  Novce  Hol- 
Ifindice, — is  of  a  brownish  gray,  and  almost  the  whole  head    as 
well  as  the  neck,  is  covered  with  fringed  feathers.     Its  speed  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  preceding  species.     Its  flesh  resembles 
beef. 

FAMILY  OF  PRESSIROSTRES. 

19.  The  Pressirostres,  like  the  Brevipennes,  and  many  of  the 
Longirostres,  are  high  on  their  legs,  and  without  a   thumb,   or 
the  thumb  is  too  short  to  touch  the  ground ;  their  beak    is  of 
moderate  length  and  sufficiently  strong  to  dig  the  earth  in  search 
of  worms  ;  their  wings  are  sometimes  short,  but  can  always   be 
used  in  flight.  (Plate  5,  fig.  6,  and?.) 

20.  This  family  is  composed  of  the  Bustards,  the  Plovers,  the 
Lapwings,  and  some  other  genera,  the  characters  of  which   are 
as  follows : 

(Genera.) 
j  f  Very  short,    ------         .-.      ^          BUSTARDS. 

W      *j 

|  -  *  f  Moderate.  (  Without  a  thumb  }•          PLOVERS. 

£  =-2N  \ 

E  "3  *  I  /  With  a  thumb,      }•          LAPWINGS. 

«  2       |   Pretty  long;  | 
O-i  ^        beak          ^Strong  and  pointed,      -     -      }•  OYSTER-CATCHERS. 

21.  The  BUSTARDS, — Otis, — are  large,  heavy  birds  that  resem- 
ble the  Gallinaceae  in  the  massive  form  of  their    bodies,  and   in 
having  the  upper  mandible  slightly  vaulted.     Their    wings  are 
short,  and  they  fly  but  little ;  most  commonly  like  the  Ostriches, 
they  employ  them  only  to  accelerate  their  speed  when  running. 
Their  food  consists  of  grains,  herbs,  worms  and  insects. 

Two  species  are  found  in  Europe,  namely  ;  the  great  Bustard, 
and  the  Little  Bustard. 

22.  The  Great  Bustard, — Otis  tarda, — which  is  of  a   bright 
fawn  colour,  crossed  with  numerous  black  streaks  on  the  back, 
and  grayish  on  the  rest  of  the  body,  attains  to   more  than  three 
feet  in    length ;  the   male  is  the  largest  of  European  birds ;  th« 
female  is  about  one  third  smaller.     It  is  a  timid  bird,  and  keeps 

18.  How  is  the  Cassowary  of  New  Holland  characterised  ? 

19.  How  are  the  Pressirostres  characterised  ? 

20.  What  genera  compose  this  i'amily  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  Bustards  ?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Great  Bustard  ?     What  are  its  nabit*  7 


90  PLOVERS.— LAPWINGS. 


on  naked  and  extended  planes  ,  it  flies  little,  but  runs  with  great 
rapidity.  It  nests  in  fields  of  grain,  and  often  unites  in  bands 
of  from  fifty  to  sixty  individuals. 

23.  The  Little  hustard, — Otis  tctrax, — is  more  than  one   half 
smaller  than  the  preceding;  it  is  brown,  dotted  with  black  above, 
and  whitish    beneath.     It  is  less  frequently  met  with  than  the 
Great  Bustard. 

24.  The   PLOVERS,—  Char  a  drius,— (Plate  5,  fg.  6.)  like   the 
preceding,   have  no  thumb;  but  their  moderate    beak  is  com- 
pressed" and  swelled  at  the  end  ;  their  wings  are  moderate,   and 
they  fly  well.     They  habitually  frequent  sea -coasts,  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  maritime  marshes,  and  feed  chiefly  on   worms,  which 
they  induce  to  crawl  out  of  the  ground  by  striking  their  feet  upon 
it.     Some  species  live  solitary,  and  others  in  small  troops.    They 
emigrate  every  year,  in  more  or  less  numerous  troops,  and  it  is 
chiefly  in  the  autumn  during  the  rains,  that  they  are  seen  in 
greatest  numbers;  from  this   circumstance  they  have  obtained 
their  name.     When  on  land,  they  are  in  constant  motion,    and 
they  fly  in  a  long  file.     Their  flesh  is  delicate  and  esteemed  :  in 
those  provinces   where  they  are  common,   many  are  taken  by 
means  of  nets.     The  species  of  France  are  seen  only  in  autumn 
and  spring  ;  they  are  the  Dotterel,  the  Golden  Clover,  and  the  Ring 
Plow;  they  are  all    found   in  the  United  States.     There   are 
several  species  which  have  a  horny  spur  on  the  carpal  end  of  the 
forearm. 

25.  The  LAPWINGS, —  Vanettus, — differ  from  Plovers  in  having 
a  thumb,  but  it  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  touch  the  ground. 
Their  habits  are  the  same,  and  they  often  go  in  company   with 
them.   > 

26.  The   CRESTED   LAPWING,  —  Vanellus  cristatits,  —  inhabits 
Europe;  it  is  a  pretty  bird  of  the   size  of  a  Pigeon,    bronze 
black  with  a  long  and  slender  crest,  (Plate  5,  /fyr,  7.)     It  arrives 
in  France  in  the  spring,  builds  its  nest  in  the  fields,  and  remains 
through  the  summer ;  but  most  of  the  species  very  soon   after 
their  arrival,  continue  their  course  to  the  north,  and   return   in 
the  autumn. 

27.  [The  OYSTER-CATCHERS, — Hcemafopus, — have  a  somewhat 
longer  beak  than  the  Plovers  or  Lapwings.     They  dwell  exclu- 
sively along  the   borders   of  the  sea,  frequenting  beaches   and 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Lit  le  Bustard  ? 

24.  What  are  the  ehar.icters  of  the  PI  .vers  7     From    what  circumstance 
io  they  derive  their  name?     What  are  their  habits? 

25.  How  do  Lapwings  differ  from  Plovers  ? 

26.  What  is  the  Crested  Lapwing  ? 

27.  Bow  are  the  Oyster-catchers  characterised  ?     What  are  Iheir  habits  ? 


CRANES.  91 


sandy  shores,  where  they  are  seen  to  follow  the  waves  in  search 
of  marine  insects.  The  Oyster- Catcher, — Hcetnatopus  ostralegus, 
— is  common  to  the  north  of  both  continents,  and  is  frequent  on 
the  sea  shore  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Southern  States. 

FAMILY  OF  CULTRIROSTRES. 

28.  All  the  Grallatoriae  of  this  family  have  a  long,  thick,  strong 
beak,  which  is  frequently  trenchant  and  pointed  ;  in  general,  they 
have  a  well  marked  thumb. 

29.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  tribes,  namely: 

1st  The  CRANES,  which  have  a  straight  beak,  slightly  cleft, 
and  nearly  one  half  of  it  is  occupied  by  the  membranous  fossae  of 
the  nostrils. 

2nd  The  HERONS,  whose  beak  is  strong,  cleft  to  beneath  the 
eyes,  and  grooved. 

3d.  The  STORKS,  whose  beak  is  very  long,  and  very  strong. 

30.  The  CRANES, — Grus, — have  a  straight  beak  which  is  but 
slightly  cleft ,  the  toes  are  moderate,  the  external  ones   being   a 
little   palmate,   and    the   thumb   scarcely   touches  the    ground. 
Almost  all  of  them  have  the  head  and  neck,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  destitute  of  feathers  ;  their   habits  are  more  terrestrial 
than  those  of  the  other  Cultrirostres,  and   their  food  is    more 
vegetable. 

31.  The    Trumpeters, —  Psophia,  —  and   Cranes  properly  so 
called,  are  ranged  under  this  division.     Among  the  former  are 
the   Crowned    Crane,    which  comes  from  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  and  the  NumMian  Crane;  and  amongst  the  latter   is  the 
Common  Crane,  which  is  more  than  four  feet  high ;  and   which 
is   celebrated  for  the  migrations  it   makes  every  autumn  from 
north  to  south,  and  every   spring   in   a  contrary  direction,  in 
numerous  and  well  conducted  troops. 

32.  [The   W hooping    Craw,  —  (*rus   americana,  —  is    white; 
primaries   black,   and   with   black  shafts ;  the  whole  crown  and 
cheeks  bald.     This  stately  Crane,  the  largest  of  all  the  feathered 
tribes  in  the  United  States,  is  met  with  in  almost  every  part  of 
North    America,   dwelling  amidst  marshes,  and  dark  and  deso- 
late swamps ;  it  retires  to  the    West  Indies  to  pass  the  winter, 
though  some  have  been  known  to  linger,  through  the  whole  of 
the  inclement  season,  in  the  swamps  of  New  Jersey,  near  Cape 
May.] ^ 

28.  How  are  tliR  Culfrirostres  characterised  ? 

29.  Into  what  tribes  is  the  family  of  Cultrirostres  divided  7 

30.  How  are  Cranes  characterised  ? 

31.  For  what  is  the  common  Crane  celebrated? 

32.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Whooping  Crane? 

S* 


HERONS.-STORKS. 


33.  The  HERONS, — tfrdea, — are  more  carnivorous,    and   are 
recognised  oy  their  larger  toes,  and  by  their  strong  beak  which 
is  cleft  to  beneath  the  eyes,  and  acuminated.     They  are  gloomy 
birds,  and  build  their  nests  in  swamps,  along  the  banks  of  rivers. 
They  feed  on  fish,  frogs,  moles,  insects,  &c. 

34.  The  tribe  is  divided  into  Herons  properly  so  called,  Boat- 
bills  (Cancromn)  &c.     The  beak  in  the  first  is  higher  than  it   is 
wide,  and  in  the  second  flattened  and  very  broad. 

35.  HERONS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — rfraea,—  have  the  eyes  sur- 
rounded by  a  naked  membrane,  which  extends  to  the  beak ;  the 
tarsi  are  scutellaled,  &c. 

36.  The  Common  Heron,  —  Jirdea  cinerea, — is  a  large  bird,  the 
plumage  of  which  is  bluish  ash-colour,  with  the  front  of  the  neck 
white,  sprinkled  with  black  tears,  and  a  black  tuft  on  the  occiput ; 
it  is  almost  always  solitary,  and  is  often  seen  for  hours  together, 
on   the  same  spot,  standing  motionless  on  one  foot,  the  body 
almost  straight,  the  neck  bent,   and   the  beak  resting  on  one 
shoulder ;  it  is  gloomy  and  timid,  and,  in  general,  flies   during 
the  night,   when  it  utters  a  harsh,   sharp  cry ;  its  flight  is  not 
rapid,   but  very  powerful,  and  it  can  soar  to  an  immense  height. 
Its   depredations   on  the  fishes   of  European  rivers,  render  it 
highly  prejudicial ;  it  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  sport  which 
the  wealthy   in  former  times,  derived    from    hunting    it    with 
falcons. 

37.  The  Crab- eater,  is  a  species  of  Heron  of  small  size  which 
is  found  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  France ;  it  frequents  the 
vicinity  of  ponds. 

38.  The   name   of  Egrets  is  given   to  certain   Herons,    the 
feathers   of  which,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  at  a  certain 
period,    are   long  and  fringed;  the   most  beautiful  species,  the 
feathers   of  which   are  used  for  ornamental    purposes,  are  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Egret ;  their  plumage  is  entirely  white,  and 
they  are  met  with  in  Europe. 

39.  The  Bitterns,  and  Might- Herons,  also  belong  to  this  tribe. 

40.  The   tribe    of  STORKS  is   characterised    by  a  larger  and 
smoother  beak  than  the  preceding,  and  by  strong,  almost  equal 
palmate  membranes  betwixt  the  bases  of  the  toes. 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  Herons? 

34.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Herons  divided  ? 

35.  How  are  Herons  properly  so  called,  characterised  ? 

36.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Common  Heron '!  What  are  its  habits? 

37.  What  is  the  Crab-eater  ? 

38.  What  are  Egrets? 

39.  What  are  Bitterns' 

40.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Storks  characterised? 


STORKS.-  SPOONBILLS.  93 

41.  The  Storks  properly  so  called, —  Ciconia, — have  a   large 
beak  which  is  moderately  cleft ;  their  light  and  broad  mandibles, 
by  striking  against  each  other,  produce  a  peculiar  clash.     Their 
legs  are  reticulated  and  not  very  muscular    Their  movements  are 
slow,  and  their  steps  long  and  measured ;  in  their  powerful  and 
sustained  flight,  they  carry  their  head  stiffly   in    advance,   and 
their  legs,  extended  behind,  serve  them  for  a  rudder. 

42.  The   \\kite  Stork. — Jlrdea    ciwnia — (I'ltte    5,   Jig.    8.) 
appears  in  France  and  Germany  in  the  spring,  and    passes  the 
winter  in  Africa.     It  is  a  large,  white  bird,  with  the  primaries  of 
the  wings  black,  and  the  beak  and  feet  red.     They  live  in  pairs, 
and  return  every  year  to  lay  in  the  same  nest     There  is  no  bird 
which  has  received,  from  different  nations,  more  universal    pro- 
tection than  this,  which  is,  in  fact,  every  where  useful  in  ridding 
the  soil  of  prejudicial  animals,  without,  at  the  same  time,   doing 
the  smallest  injury.     Among  the  ancients,  this    veneration   was 
carried  to  such  an  extent,  that  it  was  made  a  crime  to  kill  one  of 
these  birds ;  in  Thessaly  it  was  even  punishable  by  death.    Like 
the   Ibis,   the  Stork   was  an  object  of    worship   amongst    the 
Egyptians;   and  its  instinctive   qualities    have   no  doubt    con- 
tributed to  increase  this  respect  which  is  perpetuated  among  the 
orientals,  and  still  observed  in  Switzerland  and  Holland.     It  has 
so  much  affection  for  its  young  that  it  does  not  quit  them  in  the 
greatest  danger ;  it  is  recorded  in  history,  that  the  Stork  of  Delft, 
which  was  uselessly  urged  to  carry  away  her  young,  remained 
and  perished  with  them  in  the  conflagration  of  that    city.     The 
tender  attentions  which  these  birds  pay  to  their  parents  in  old 
age,   are  not  less  remarkable,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
Greeks  gave  their   name  to  the  law  which  obliges  children  to 
fuinish  aliment  to  their  parents  when  they  are  in  want. 

43.  Some  species  of  Storks  have  on  the  middle  of  the  neck  an 
appendage  which  resembles  a  large  sausage,  on  account  of  which 
they  are  called,  Pouched  Storks;  t*»e  featners  from  beneath  their 
wings  form  those  light  plumes  which  are  called,  by  the  French, 
Marabous  ;  one  species  is  found  in  Senegal,  and  another  in  India. 

44.  The  Spoonbills, —  Platalea, — resemble  the  Storks  In  their 
whole  structure;  but  their  beak,  from  which  they   derive  their 
name,  is  flat,  and   widened  at  the  end  into  a  round  disk  like  a 
spatula,  (Plate  5,fg.  9.)     This  conformation  permits   them  to 

41.  What  are  tl  e  characters  of  Storks  properly  so  called  ? 

42.  What  is  the  While  Stork  ?     What  are  its'  habits?     For    what    is    if 
remarkable? 

43.  What  are  Pouched  Stork*  ? 

44.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Spoonbills? 

2E 


«M  IBISES. 


feed  only  on  little  animals  which  they  obtain,  either  by  rooting 
m  the  mud,  or  fishing  in  the  water  One  species  is  spread 
throughout  the  eastern  continent,  and  another  is  proper  to 
South  America. 

FAMILY  OF  LONGIROSTRES. 

45.  The  Longirostres  have  a  long,  slender  and  feeble  beak, 
which  is  only  suitable  for  rooting  in  the  mud,  in  search  of  worms 
and  small  insects,  (Plate  5,  fry.  10.)  These  Grallatoriae  form  two 
tribes,  SNIPES  in  which  the  beak  is  straight,  or  curved  downwards ; 
and  the  AVOSETS  in  which  the  beak  is  curved  upwards. 

46  The  first  of  these  groups  is  composed  of  the  Ibis  and 
Curlews,  in  which  the  beak  is  arcuate,  and  Snipes  properly  so 
called,  Sandpipers,  the  Ruffs,  and  a  great  number  of  other 
birds  in  which  the  beak  is  straight. 

47.  The  IBISES,  (Plate  5,  fiy.   10.)  have  the  beak   arcuate,  a 
part  of  the  head,  and  even  a  part  of  the  neck,  destitute  of  feathers, 
the  external  toes  perceptibly  palmate,  and  the  thumb   sufficiently 
long  to  rest  on  the  ground. 

48.  ["Species  of  the  Ibis  inhabit  all  quarters'  of  the    world. 
Thoy  frequent  the  borders  of  rivers  and  lakes,  where  they  are 
accustomed  to  feed  on  insects,  Crustacea,  worms   and  shell  fish, 
to  which  they  also,  at  times,  add  vegetables.     But  we  may  place 
among  popular  fables,  the  reputation  they  have  long  enjoyed,  of 
being  the  great  destroyers  of  serpents  and  venomous   reptiles, 
which  in  fact,  they  never  touch.     They  migrate   periodically  to 
such  distances,  that  the  boundaries  of  the  earth  alone  seem   to 
set  limits  to  their  wanderings."]— Nuttall. 

49.  A  species  of  this  genus,  the  Sacrrd  Ibi*, — Ibis  rdigiosct, — 
is   celebrated  on  account   of  the  religious  worship  it  received 
among  the  Ancient  Egygtians  ;  it  was  reared  in  the   temples  of 
that  country,  and  embalmed  after  its  death      According  to  some, 
these  honours  were  rendered  to  the  Ibis  because  it   devoured 

•  serpents  which  might  have  become  dangerous  to  the  country, 
and  according  to  others,  because  its  appearance  announced  the 
rise  of  the  Nile.  It  is  often  seen  sculptured  on  the  monuments  of 
that  remarkable  people.  It  is  a  bird  of  about  the  size  of  a  hen  ; 
the  plumage  is  white,  except  the  ends  of  the  primaries  of  the 

45.  How  are  the  Longirostivs  characterised  ?  How  is  this  family  divided  ? 

46.  What  birds  compose  the  tribe  of  Snipes? 

47.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Ibises  ? 

48.  WThere  are  Ibises  found?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ? 

49.  What  is  the  Sacred  Ibis?     Why  is  it  called  sacred?     What   are  lU 
characters  ? 


CURL  EVVS.— SNIPES.— AVOSETS. P5 

wings,  which  are  black,  and  the  beak,  and  the  feet,  as  well  as 
the  naked  portion  of  the  head  am|  neck,  which  are  also  black. 
This  species  is  found  throughout  Africa. 

50.  The  Curlew,  —  Nmneuius, — have  the  beak  arcuated    like 
that  of  the  Ibis,  but  it  is  more  slender  and  round  throughout;  the 
tip  of  the  upper  mandible  extends  beyond  the  end  of  the  lower 
one,  and  projects  a  little  downwards  in  front  of  it.     The  toes  are 
pal  mated  at  b  ise.     They  are  met  with  on  our  own  coasts, 

51.  The  SNIPES  PROPERLY   so    CALLED, —  Scolopax,  —  have   a 
straight  beak,  a  compressed   head,  with  large  eyes,  placed  far 
back,  and  the  feet  are  not  pal  mated ;  they  are  singularly  stupid 
in  appearance,  which  is  not  contradicted  by  their  habits. 

52.  The  Common  Woodcock  of  Europe,  —  Scofopax  rutticola, — 
inhabits  lofty  mountains  during  the  summer,  and  descends  into 
the  woods  about  the  middle  of  October  ;  it  goes  alone  or  in  pairs, 
particularly  in  bad  weather,  and  seeks  worms  and  insects  in  the 
soil. 

53.  [The  Jjl  m  erica  n  Woodcock, — Scotopax  minor, — differs  from 
th-e  European  species,  in  the  temperature  of  the  climates  selected 
for  its  residence.     It  is  met  with,  in  summer,  between  the   river 
St.   Lawrence  and  the  limits  of  the  Middle  States,  and  in  the 
winter  retires  to,  or  beyond  the  boundary   of  the  Union.     It 
revisits    Pennsylvania  early   in  March.     The  sensibility  of  the 
end  of  the  beak,  as  in  the  Snipe,  is  sufficiently  acute  to  enable  it 
to  collect  its  food  by  the  sense  of  touch  without  using  the  eyes.] 

54.  The  Snipe, — Scolnpax  </«//««««/«,— is  smaller  than  the  pre- 
ceding ;  it  inhabits  marshes,  the   banks  of  rivulets,  &c.     Two 
other  species  are  found  in  France,  the  Great  Snipe,  and  Jack 
Snipe.     All   these   birds  are   excellent  to  eat.     The   American 
species  closely  resemble  those  of  Europe. 

55.  The  AVOSETS, — Recitrvirostra, — are  distinguished  by  their 
long  beak  which  is  slender,  elastic,  and  curved  upwards,  and  by 
their  feet  being  palmate  almost  to  the  ends  of  their  toes.     There 
is  one  species  in  Europe     [The  rftnerievn  rfffeooef, —  /tecurvirostra 
americcma, — arrives  on  the  coast  of  Cape  May,  in  New  Jersey, 
?  ate   in   April,   and  early  in  October  retires  with  its  young  to 
winter  in  the  South.] 

50.  How  are  the  Curlews  characterised  ? 

51.  Whit  are  the  characters  of  Snipe  properly  so  culled  ? 

52.  What  are  the  h,ibit<  of  the  European  Woodcock? 

53.  What  are  the  hibits  of  the  American  Woodcock  ? 

54.  What  is  the  Snipe? 

65.  How  are  the  Avosets  distinguished? 


9H  RAILS. 


FAMILY  OF  MACRO DACTYLI. 

56.  The  Grallatoriae  composing  this  family  never   have  the 
beak  as  slender,   and  as  weak  as  it  is  in  the  Longirostres,  but, 
in  other  respects,  its  form  varies  very  much.     They  are  chiefly 
characterised,  by  the  arrangement  of  their  toes,  which   are  very 
long,  fitted  for  walking  on  the  grass   of  marshes ;  or  even  for 
swimming,  in  which  case  they  are  widened  by  a  species  of  lateral 
border,  delate  7,  fiy.  9.)  but   they   never  possess  the  smallest 
trace  of  a  palmate  membrane  ;  the  thumb  is  always  quite  Ions: ; 
the  body  is  singularly  compressed  ;  and  their  wings  are  moderate 
or  short,  and  their  flight  is  feeble. 

57.  Some  of  them,  (the  Jacanas,  for  example,)  have  the  wings 
armed  with  a  spur ;  others  are  destitute  of  this   kind    of  spur ; 
they   are  distinguished  into  Rails  and  Coots,  according  as  the 
front  is  feathered,  or  furnished  with  a  horny  shield. 

58.  The  RAILS, — Kallus, — have  the  front  feathered,  the   beak 
compressed  and  nearly  straight,  the  head  small,  the  toes  destitute 
of  lateral    festoons,  and  the    wings  concave.     They  ordinarily 
keep  concealed  beneath  the  grass  during  the  day,  and  seek  their 
food,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  amidst  the  rushes  and  herbs  of 
marshes  and  prairies. 

59.  The  Water  Hail  of  Europe,—  Rallns  aqnaticus, — is  fawn 
coloured  brown,  spotted  with  blackish  above,   bluish    ash-colour 
beneath,  and  striped  black  and  white  on  the  flanks.     Its  flesh  has 
a  marshy  odour.     It  is  common   along  rivulets,  and    ponds ;  it 
swims  well  and  runs  lightly  over  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 

60.  [The    Clajiper  Hail,  or  Mud  Hen, —  Kallus  crepitans, — 
abounds  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States.     It  is  very  numerous 
on    the  extensive  salt  marshes  of  New  Jersey,  where  they  are 
intersected  by  numerous  tide  water  ditches.     It  winters  near  to, 
or  within  the  southern  boundaries  of  the  Union.] 

61.  The  Crcxj  or  Land  Rail, — Kallus  crex,  —  is  vulgarly  called 
the  King  of  the  Q,uails,  because,  from  the  circumstance  of  arriving 
and  departing  with  them,  and  keeping  on  the  same   grounds,  it 
was  believed  that  he  led  them.     It  lives  and  nests  in   the   fields, 
and  runs  through  the  grass  with  great  rapidity. 

56.  How  are  the  Macrodactyli  characterised  ? 

57.  How  is  the  family  of  Macrodactyli  distinguished  ? 

58.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Rails? 

59    What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Water  Rail? 

60.  What  is  the  Mud- Hen? 

61.  Wnat  is  the  King  of  Quails? 


COOTS.— FLAMINGOS.  97 


62.  The  COOTS, — FuLc.a^ — are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
Rails  by  a  sort  of  horny  plate,  which  extends  from  the  base  of  the 
beak,  and  covers  the  forehead.     This  genus  comprises  the  Water- 
Hats, —  Gallimila. —  which  are  characterised  by  their  very  long 
toes,    furnished    with    a  narrow   border.     In  general,  they  live 
singly  or  in  couples,  sometimes  i-n  small  troops  of  three  or  four, 
on  stagnant  waters  ;  they  swim  and  dive  readily  ;  during  a  great 
part  of  the  day  they  keep  concealed  amongst  reeds  and   rushes, 
and  venture  only  upon  the  surface  of  the  waters  at  night.     Their 
flight,  during  which  their  legs  are  pendent,  is  neither  lofty,  sus- 
tained, nor  rapid.    There  is  one  species  widely  spread  in  Europe 

The  American  Coots  resemble  those  of  Europe. 

FAMILY  OF  FLAMINGOS. 

63.  This  division  of  the  Order  of  Grallatoria?  is  composed  of 
a  single  genus,  which  is  very  remarkable  for  the  singular  struc- 
ture of  its  beak,  and  the  disproportionate  length  of  the  legs  and 
neck.     (P'ate  5.  fig   11.) 

64.  Flamingos, — Phcenicopterns, — are  large  birds  that  stand 
high  on  their  legs ;  they  have  palmate  feet,  an   extremely   long, 
slender  neck,  a  small  head,  the  upper  mandible  flat,  and  suddenly 
bent  down  at  its  middle  to  be  applied  over  the  lower  mandible 
which  is  oval,  and  longitudinally  hollowed  into  a  semi-cylindrical 
canal ;  the  edges   of  both   mandibles  are   furnished  with    very 
delicate  little  transverse  plates  like  those  of  ducks,  and  their  tongue 
is  thick  and  fleshy.     They  live  on  shell  fish,  insects,  and  the  eggs 
of  fishes,  which  they  obtain  by  means  of  their  long  neck,  and  by 
bending  down  the  head,  to  use  the  hook  of  the  upper  mandible  to 
advantage. 

65.  The  most  common  species  is  spread  over  the  eastern  con- 
tinent, as  far  as  the  fortieth  degree  of  north  latitude.    Numerous 
troops  are  seen  every  year  on  the  southern  shores  of  France,  and 
sometimes   they  ascend  as  far  as   the  river  Rhine      The   Red 
Flamingo, —  Plicenicopterna   rnber, — is  from  three   to   four   feet 
high,  of  a  purple  red  on  the  back,  and  rose  coloured  wings.     Its 
habits  are  very  remarkable.     These  birds  are  always  in  troops, 
and  they  form  a  line  for  the  purpose  of  fishing,  and  this  disposi- 
tion to  be  in  file  remains,  even  when  they  repose  on  the  shore. 
They  appoint  a  sentinel   for  their  common    security ;  whether 

62.  How  are  Coots  distinguished  from  Rails?     What  are  the  character* 
of  Water-Hcns  ?     What  are  their  habits  ?> 

63.  Is  there  more  than  one  genus  in  Die  fami!y  of  Flamingos? 

64.  How  are  Flamingos  characterised? 

65.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Red  Flamingo?     What  are  its  habiU  ? 
Upon  what  do  Flamingo*  ietd? 

2E* 


^   PALMIPEDES. 


fishing  or  at  rest,  one  of  them  is  always  on  the  lookout,  with 
head  erect,  and  if  any  thing  alarms  him,  he  utters  a  braying  cry, 
resembling  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  which  is  the  signal  for  depar- 
ture ;  as  soon  as  the  troop  rises,  and  when  they  fly,  they  still 
preserve  the  line  The  manner  in  which  they  construct  their 
nest,  is  also  worthy  of  attention ;  they  ordinarily  build  on  drowned 
or  wet  shores ,  they  construct  it  on  the  water's  edge,  of  marsh 
mud,  in  the  form  of  a  sugar  loaf,  truncated  at  top,  about  twenty 
inches  high,  and  as  they  cannot,  on  account  of  the  extreme 
length  of  their  legs,  squat  in  their  nest,  they  straddle  over  it,  the 
legs  hanging  down  on  each  side,  and  resting  on  the  ground. 

66  The  ancients  esteemed  the  flesh  of  the  Flamingos  very 
highly,  and  its  fleshy  tongue  was  particularly  prized  by  the 
Romans ;  but  the  moderns,  who  have  had  occasion  to  eat  these 
birds,  have  found  the  flesh  oily  and  disagreeable. 

67.  The  GLARioLEsand  VAGINALS,  or  Sheath-bills,  offer  nothing 
very  interesting ;  the  first  are  found  in  all  the  northern  part  of 
the  eastern  continent,  and  the  second  in  New  Holland. 


LESSON    VIII. 

ORDER  OF  PALMIPEDES  — Zoological  Characters  — Habits. — Divi- 
sion into  four  families 

FAMILY  OF  DIVERS — Grebes. — Jinks — Penguins. 

FAMILY  OF  LONGIPENNES.  —  Petrels.  —  Albatross.  —  Gulls.  — Sea- 
Swali'ows. 

FAMILY  OF  TOTIPALMATJE. — Genus  of  Pelicans,  (Pelican properly 
so  cal-fed.) — Organization. —  Habits. — Frigate  Bird. —  boobies. 

FAMILY  OF  LAMELLIROSTRES.  —  Genus  of  Ducks. — Swans. —  Geese. 
— Ducks. — Eiders — Genus  of  the  Mergansers. 


ORDER   OF   PALMIPEDES. 

1.  This  name  is  given  to  birds  in  which  the  toes  are  united  by 
a  palmate  membrane,  but  in  other  respects  without  the  conforma- 
tion that  belongs  to  the  Grallatoriae ;  every  Palmipede  has,  in 
fact,  the  interval  which  separates  the  toes,  filled  up  by  a  broad 
membrane,  which  envelopes  them  to  neai  the  nail,  or  in  other 

66.  Is  the  flesh  of  Flamingos  considered  good  food  ? 

67.  What  are  Glarioles  and  Vaginuls  ? 

I.  What  are  Palmipedes?  What  are  the  rnoBt  remarkable  parts  of  their 
organization  ?  How  is  this  order  divided  ? 


DIVERS, 


99 


words,  they  are  web-footed.  Their  feet  are  made  for  natation, 
that  is,  they  are  placed  far  back  on  the  body,  an  1  sustained 
by  strong,  compressed  tarsi.  A  close,  lustrous  plumage  imbued 
with  an  oily  fluid,  and  a  thick  down  next  to  the  skin,  protect 
them  against  the  water  upon  which  they  dwell.  They  are  the 
only  animals  of  this  class,  in  which  the  neck  exceeds — and  some- 
times very  much  — the  length  of  tne  feet,  for  the  reason  that  when 
swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  often  have  to  seek 
animals  upon  which  they  feed  in  its  depths.  The  localities  which 
they  inhabit,  removes  most  of  them  from  the  empire  of  man,  and 
in  rna-ny  respects  even  from  the  investigation  of  naturalists  Birds 
of  this  order  generally  possess  a  system  of  organization  which  is 
strong  and  appropriate  for  extensive  flight;  their  sternum  is  very 
long,  affording  ample  protection  to  most  of  their  viscera,  and  has 
but  one  notch  or  oval  hole  on  each  side,  which  is  filled  by  mem- 
brane, so  that  this  bone  affords  a  wide  surface  for  the  attachment 
of  the  depressor  muscles  of  the  wings.  This  order  is  divided  into 
four  families  according  to  the  following  characters  : 

(Families.) 


Having  excessively  sh  )rt  winors,  and  the  legs  "| 
placed  so  far  ba  k,  that  they  are  oh  iged,  when  on  ! 
land,  to  preserve  an  almost  vertical  position.  They  j 
fly  little,  or  not  at  all. 


BRACHYPTERA 
or 

DIVERS. 


Having  the 
wings  of  ordi- 
nary  length*  or 
even  very  long, 
and  the  feet  so 
placed  as  to  ('ru- 
ble the  animal  to 
walk  when  in  a 
horizontal  posi- 
tion. 


C     The  thumb  free,  "] 

The  beak  <  or  wanting.  Wings  >    LONGIPENNKS. 
horny,      ^excessively  long.      J 


(*  The  thumb  united 
j  to  the  other  toes  by 
j  a  common  mem- 
l^brane.  Wings  long. 

The  beak  covered  by  a  soft 
skin,  and  the  edsjes  furnished 
with  transverse  lamellae,  or  very 
fine  teeth. 


TOTIPALMATJ 


LAMELLIROSTRM. 


FAMILY  OF  BRACHYPTER.E,  OR  DIVERS 
2.  They  have  the  legs  placed  farther  back  than  all  other  birds, 
which  renders  it  laborious  for  them  to  walk,  and  generally  obliges 
them  to  keep  in  an  erect  position  when  on  land,  (Plate  6,  jig. 
I,and2.)  As  most  of  them  fly  badly,  and  as  many  of  them 
cannot  even  fly  at  all,  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  shortness 
of  their  wings,  they  may  be  regarded  as  belonging,  almost  exclu- 


2.  What  are  the  characters  ofthe  Brachyptei 
How  is  this  family  divided  ? 
9 


?  What  are  their  habits  ? 


100  DIVERS.— GREBES. 


sively,  to  the  surface  of  the  water:  their  plumage  is  very  close 
in  structure,  and  even  frequently  presents  a  smooth  surface  and 
a  silvery  brightness.  They  swim  perfectly,  with  the  body  entirely 
under  water,  and  use  their  wings  almost  as  if  they  were  fins. 
This  family  is  divided  into  three  tribes,  namely: 

1st  The  DIVERS,  in  which  the  beak  is  moderate,  strong, 
straight,  very  pointed,  and  compressed,  and  the  nostrils  are 
lateral,  linear,  and  half  closed  by  a  membrane. 

•2nd.  The  AUKS,  in  which  the  beak  is  very  compressed, 
trenchant,  and  ordinarily  furrowed  transversely. 

3d.  The  PENGUINS,  in  which  the  beak  is  pointed  or  hooked, 
and  the  wings  are  furnished  only  with  feathers,  which  are  so 
short  that  they  resemble  scales. 

3.  The  DIVERS,  are  sub-divided  into  Divers  properly  so  called, 
Grebes,  Guillemots,  &c. 

4.  The  DIVERS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Colymbvs, — are  recog- 
nised by  their  long  toes,  which  are  entirely  palmate,  and  armed 
with  pointed  nails;  the  thumb  is  short  and  provided  with  a  small 
membrane.     Their  tail   is  very  short  and  round.     These  birds 
never  quit  the   water  except  during  the  season  of  laying,  and 
then  they  walk  by  the  assistance  of  their  wings  ;  if  these  supports 
(ail  them,  they   fall  upon  the  belly,  and  have  great  difficulty  in 
rising      They  keep  habitually  under  water,  and    scarcely  show 
any  thing  but  the  head  to  breathe  from  time  to  time.     They    fly 
well,  but  rarely,  and  dive  at  the  flash  of  a  gun,  without   attempt- 
ing to  fly.    They  feed  on  fishes,  spawn,  and  aquatic  insects.    The 
most  common  of  its  tribe,  in  the  United  States,  is  the  Loon,  or 
Grf at  Northern  Diver, —  Colymbus  ylacialis. 

5.  The  GREBES, — Podiccps, — (P'ate  6,  fig.  2.)  in  place  of  true 
palmate  membranes,  have  the  toes  widened  like  the  Grallatoria 
of  the  genus  Fulica,  and  the  anterior  ones  being  united  only   at 
the  base   by   membranes.     They  live  on  lakes  and  ponds,  and 
build  among  the  rushes.     They  swim  with  ease,  and    dive   fre- 
quently ;  the  semi-metallic  lustre   of  their  plumage  has  caused 
their  skins   to  be  applied  to   the  same  use  as  fur.     There  are 
several  species  in  Europe  which  are  not  well  distinguished  ;  the 
largest   is   of  the   size  of  a  duck,  and  the  smallest  is  not  larger 
than  a  quail. 

6.  The  name  of  GUILLEMOTS, —  Una, — is  given  to  Divers  that 
want  the  thumb,  and  that  have  shorter  wings  than  the  preceding. 

3.  Ho.v  are  the  Divers  divided  ? 

4  How  are  Divrrs  properly  so  called,  characterised?     What   are  their 
habits  ?      What  is  the  Loon  ?  • 

5  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Grebes  ? 

6  What  aru  Guillemots  i 


AUKS.— PENGUINS.  101 


7.  Birds  of  the  tribe  of  AUKS, — ^/ca, — have  a  broad,  straight, 
compressed  beak,  which  is  very  much  curved  at  the  point.     The 
nostrils,    which    are  about  the    middle    of  the  beak,  are  almost 
closed  by  a  membrane  covered  with  feathers ;  the  feet  are  short, 
have  only  three  toes,  and  are  completely  palmate ;  the  nails  are 
slightly  curved.     They  have  the  same  habits  as  the  birds   of  the 
preceding  genera,  and,  like  them,  inhabit  the   north.     With    the 
exception  of  a  single  species,  they  all  fly  but  little,   and   always 
grazing,   or   lightly  touching  the    surface   of  the  water.     [The 
ttazor-bilt  .fink, — Men  torda, — inhabits  the   coldest    regions   of 
the  northern  hemisphere.     It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits,  and  flies 
rapidly,  but  near  the  surface  of  the  water.     The  Great  *fln/t,  or 
Northern    Penguin, — Mai   impennis, — inhabits  the  highest  lati- 
tudes of  the  globe,  dwelling  by  choice  and  instinct,  amidst  regions 
covered  with  eternal  ice      Its  wings  are  extremely  short  and  use- 
less for  flight] 

8.  The  tribe  of  PENGUINS,  —  Jl  pie  nndfites,— (Plate   6,    fig.    1.) 
comprises  Palmipedes,  not  one  of  which  can  fly ;  their  little  wings 
are  covered  with  mere  vestiges  of  feathers,  which  at  first    sight 
resemble  scales;  their  feet,  which  are  placed  farther  back  than  in 
any  other  bird,  only  support  them  when  they  rest  upon  the  tarsus, 
which  is  widened  like  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  quadruped  ;  they 
have  a  small  thumb  directed  inwards,  and  the  three  anterior  toes 
are  united  by  a  membrane.     These  birds  never  quit   the    water, 
except  to  lay,  and  then  they  are  obliged  to  drag  themselves  along 
on  the  belly.     They  are  only  found  in  the  antarctic  seas.     The 
Great    Penguin, — Jipteuodyfex    palagaiiica, — is   the   size    of  a 
goose,   slate   colour   above,   with   a    black  mask,  and  a  lemon 
coloured  tail. 

FAMILY  OF  LONGIPENNES. 

9.  This  family  contains  birds  of  the  high  seas  which  from  their 
power  of  extensive  flight,   are  every  where  found,  and  which 
navigators  meet  with  in  every  latitude.    They  have  sharp,  slender 
wings,  (Plate  6,  fig.  4.) ;  their  pectoral  muscles  are  very  power- 
ful, their  feet  are  widely  palmate,  which  better  enables  them   to 
repose  upon  the  waves ;  and  their  piercing  sight,  inevitably  pre- 
vents the  escape  of  fishes,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  which 
they  seize,  not  by  diving,  but  skimming  the  surface.    These  birds 
are  frequently  met  at  incredible  distances  from  land,  and  they  are 
seldom  seen  beyond  the  limits  of  the  zones,  which  they   inhabit 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Auks  ?     What  is  the  Razor-biil  Auk" 
What  is  the  Great  Auk  ? 

8.  What  are  the  characters  of  Penguins?  What  regions  do  they  inhabit? 

9.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Longipenncs  ? 


102  PETRELS. 


through  preference.  They  are  recognised  by  the  freedom  of  the 
thumb,  or  its  entire  absence,  by  their  very  long  wings,  and  by 
their  beak,  which  is  without  teeth,  hooked,  or  simply  pointed. 

10.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  characters  of  the  principal 
genera  composing  this  family. 

(Genera.) 

/^s?  f-tst^&s&j  — 

of  a  lube.      [^  Wi(hout  a  vestige  of  a  thumb,        }•      ALBATROSS. 

•~   i 

f  Legs  pretty  long ;  tail  not  forked      }•         GULLS. 
The  nostrils  » 

oblong  and  f     Beak  compressed,    )   SKA.SwALLOWg. 

pierced  in     -^         Legs        |   of  the  ordinary  form.  $ 
different  very  short;! 

places.         j    tail    gener-j          Beak  like  the        ) 

[  ally  forked.  |    blades  of  a  pair   of  >       SKIMMERS. 
l_  scissors.  \ 

It.  The  PETRELS, —  Procellaria, — have  a  beak,  hooked  at  the 
end,  the  extremity  of  which  seems  to  consist  of  a  distinct  piece, 
articulated  with  the  remainder ;  their  nostrils  are  united  in  a  tube 
laid  on  the  back  of  the  upper  mandible  ;  in  place  of  a  thumb, 
there  is  a  nail  planted  in  the  heel.  Of  all  the  palmipedes  these 
remain  most  constantly  at  a  distance  from  land  ;  and  when  a  tem- 
pest supervenes,  they  are  often  forced  to  seek  shelter  on  reefs  and 
ships,  which  circumstance  has  obtained  for  them  the  name  of 
Storm  Birds.  That  of  Petrel,  (little  Peter)  is  given  to  them,  it  is 
said,  from  their  habit  of  walking  on  the  water,  by  the  assistance 
of  their  wings,  which  reminds  us  of  the  miracle  of  Saint  Peter 
walking  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.  They  build  their  nest  in 
holes,  in  rocks,  and  they  eject  upon  those  that  attack  them  an 
oily  fluid  with  which  their  stomach  appears  to  be  always  filled. 
The  greatest  number  of  species  inhabit  the  seas  of  the  Antarctic 
pole. 

12.  These  birds  are  nocturnal ;  they  seek  their  food  only  in  the 
morning,  or  evening  twilight.  During  the  day  they  lie  concealed 
in  caverns  and  clefts  of  rocks.  They  feed  on  the  bodies. of  dead 
cetacea,  mollusca,  and  worms  that  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

To  this  genus  belong  the  Stormy  Petrels,  or  Mother  Carey's 
chickens  —  Procellaria  pelayica, — Cape  Pigeons,  &c. 

1C.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  firnily  of  Longipennes  ? 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Petrels? 

12.  What  are  the  habits  of  Petrels  1 


ALHATROSS.— GULLS.— SEA-SWALLOWS.  ]  03 

y '-.  -  — -_-— — 

13.  The  ALBATROSSES, — Dinmedca, — hrtve  a  very  long,  very 
strong,  hard,  trenchant  and  compressed  beak,  which  is  straight 
at  the  base,  and  suddenly  curved  towards  the  end;  the  nostrils 
are  tubular,  and  placed  in  a  furrow;  the  feet  are  short  and  pal- 
mate, and  have  but  three  toes;  the  nails  are  short  and  dull. 

14  The  Albatrosses  are  the  largest  of  all  oceanic  birds;  their 
heavy,  massive  form  seems  to  bear  -very  little  relation  to  their 
rapid  and  long  continued  flight,  which  has  caused  them  to  be 
called  by  mariners  Cape  Sheep,  or  .\Jan-ol-wur-binls.  The 
species  best  known,  is  white  with  black  wings.  Of  all  birds, 
this  one  is  seen  at  the  greatest  distance  from  land ;  it  generally 
inhabits  extra-tropical  latitudes,  and  it  is  chiefly  in  those  seas 
which  wash  the  three  great  southern  capes,  that  it  is  most  com- 
monly seen.  It  was  for  a  long  time  believed  that  it  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  was  never  seen  in 
the  north. 

15.  The  genus  of  GULLS, — Larus,—  (Plate  6.  /fc.  5.)  have  a 
moderate  entire  beak,   which  is  naked  at  the  base ;  the  upper 
mandible  is  curved   at  the  point,  and  the  inferior,  swelled  and 
angular  beneath  ;  the  nostrils  are  median  and  longitudinal;  the 
tarsi   are  pretty  long,  and  naked  above  the  knee :  the  thumb 
which  is  articulated  high   up,  is  sometimes  without  a  nail ;  the 
tail  is  rectilinear,  and  the  wings  are  long     The  name  of  (loelaitd*, 
or  Gulls  properly  so  called,  is  given  to  large  species,  the   size  of 
which  exceeds  that  of  a  duck,  while  the  smaller  species  are  called 
Mouettes. 

16.  Mouettes  inhabit  the  sea  shore  of  all  parts   of  the  globe. 
They    are  clamorous  and  voracious ;  they  feed   on  fishes  and 
small   animals,  as   well  as  on   carrion  and  dead  bodies;  their 
gluttony  is- such  that  they  may  be  easily  taken  by  enveloping  a 
hook  with  feathers  which,  floating  on  the  surface,  in  their  eyes, 
resembles  a  little  fish. 

17.  The   SEA   SWALLOWS,  or   TERNS, — Sterna, — derive   their 
name   from  their  excessively  long  wings  and  forked  tail  which 
give  them  the  appearance  of  common  Swallows.     Their  beak  is 
as  long  or  longer  than   the  head,  almost   straight,  compressed, 
trenchant,   acute  at  the  point,  and  both  mandibles  are  of  equal 
length  ;  the  nostrils  are  about  the  middle   of  the  beak ;  the    feet 
are  small,  naked  above  the  knee,  the  tarsi  are  very  short,  and  the 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Albatross? 

14.  Where  are  Albatrosses  found' 

15.  How  are  Galls  characterised  ?     What  are  Goiilands* 

16.  What  are  Mnurttes  ? 

17.  What  are  the  cluncters  o"  Sea-Swallows  ? 

9* 


1 04 SKIM  MERS.— PELICANS. 

anterior  toes  are  united  by  a  membrane.  Their  nails  are  small 
and  arcuate.  These  birds  fly  a  great  deal,  rarely  alight  upon 
the  water,  and  do  not  swim.  They  feed  on  little  fishes  or  insects 
which  they  seize  as  they  fly,  skimming  the  surface  of  the  water. 
All  birds  of  this  genus  are  clothed  in  white,  with  the  back,  wings, 
and  tail,  pearl  gray. 

18.  The  Skimmers,  (Cut- waters,  or  Shear- waters,  —  Rhync/tops, 
— are  remarkable  for  the  singular  form  of  their  beak,  the  lower 
mandible  of  which  is  much  longer  than  the  upper,  both  being  flat- 
tened, so  as  to  form  simple  blades,  which  meet  without  clasping. 
They  inhabit  the  West  Indies.  [The  Cut-water,  or  Black  Skimmer, 
—  /{/lynckofts  nigra, — is  a  bird  of  passage  in  the  United  States  It 
arrives  from  its  winter  quarters  about  the  middle  of  May,  on  the 
sea  shores  of  New  Jersey,  where  it  breeds :  its  favourite  haunts 
are  along  the  low  sand-bars  and  dry  flats  of  the  strand,  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  ocean.] 

FAMILY  OF  TOTIPALMAT.E 

19  The  birds  of  this  family  are  remarkable  for  having  the 
thumb  united  to  the  other  toes  in  the  same  membrane,  and  not- 
withstanding this  organization,  which  converts  their  feet  into 
excellent  paddles,  they  are  the  only  birds  among  the  Palmipedes 
that  perch  on  trees.  They  all  fly  well,  and  have  short  feet. 

The  characters  of  the  most  important  genera  of  this  family  are 
contained  in  the  following  table: 

(Genera.) 

'  Having  a  large  cutaneous  pouch  or  sac,  suspended  )         p 
between  the  branches  of  the  lower  mandible.        \ 

f      The  beak      f          Tail  round,        )       „ 
I  straight,  com-      (of  fourteen  quills.)  ( 
Without  a     |  pressed,     and! 

sac  bencaih  I  hooked  at  the  |    Tail  forked ^   FRIGATE  BIRDS. 

the  lower     j  end. 

jaw.  (.  Tail  pointed  .  .  .  .    }•          BOOBIES. 

^  Beak  straight,  slender,  and  pointed,    }•     DARTERS,  &c. 

20.  The  PELICANS, —  Peficanvs, — (Plate  6,  fig.  3  )  have  a  long, 
straight,  broad  beak,  which  is  very  much  depressed  ;  the  upper 
mandible  is  flattened  and  hooked,  and  the  lower  one  is  formed 
of  two  bony  branches  between  which  hangs  a  large  pouch  of 
naked  skin.  The  face  and  throat  are  naked,  the  feet  are  strong 
and  short,  and  all  the  toes  are  united  by  a  single  membrane. 
These  singular  animals  are  expert  swimmers,  and  are  found  both 
Dn  salt  and  fresh  waters.  They  feed  on  fishes,  and  can  store  an 

18.  How  are  the  Skimmers  characterised  ?    What  is  the  Black  Skimmer  7 
ID.  For  what  are  birds  of  the  family  of  Tolipalrnatae  remarkable  ? 
20.  How  are  Pelicans  characterised?     Where  are  they  found? 


CORMORANTS.  105 


ample  supply  of  them  in  their  pouch,  which  is  prodigiously  dilata- 
ble. They  are  spread  overall  the  warm,  temperate,  and  even  the 
almost  frigid  climates  of  the  globe,  and  one  of  the  species,  the 
common  Pelican,  may  be  considered  a  cosmopolite. 

21.  The  Common   Pelican, —  Pelicantts  onocrotalus,  —(some- 
times called  onucrotalus,  because  its  voice  has  been  compared  to 
the  braying  of  an  ass,)  the  largest  web-footed  water-fowl  known, 
is   five  or  six  feet  long  with  an  alar  spread  of  twelve  feet ;  the 
beak    alone   is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  and  its  pouch 
will  contain  a  dozen  quarts  of  water;  its  plumage   is   more  or 
less   purely   white,   according  to  its  age,  and  the  remiges  are 
black.     It  flies  well,  and  sometimes  rises  to  a  great  height ;  but 
in  general,  it  skims  the  surface  of  the  water,   or   balances   at  a 
moderate   elevation,  in   order  to  precipitate  itself  more  readily 
upon   its   prey;  sometimes  it  is  seen  to  beat  the  water  with  its 
wings  as  if  to  disturb  it,  and  alarm  the  fishes,  and  we  are  assured, 
when  Pelicans  are  assembled  in  troops,  they  fish  in  company,  by 
forming  a  large  circle  which  they  gradually  reduce  to   imprison 
the  fishes,  until,  at  a  given  signal,  they  all  strike  the  water  at  the 
same   time,   and,  under  favour   of  the   confusion,  dive  in  and 
seize  their  victims.     The  fishing  over,  they  retire  to  some  rocky 
point  or  shoal,  and  there  digest  their  gluttonous  meal  at  their  ease. 
They  can  perch  on  trees,  (which  is  very  rare  among  the   web- 
footed  birds,)  but  they  do  not  nest  in  them  ;  they    build   on   the 
ground,  in  an   excavation,   which  they  line   with  herbs.     The 
female  lays  from  four  to  six  eggs,  and  feeds  her  young  by   dis- 
gorging before  them  the  fishes,  which  she  brings  in  her  pouch  for 
their  use.     It  is  also  said  that  she  carries  them  water  in  the  same 
way,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  movement  which  she   makes  to 
empty  her  pouch,  by  pressing  it  against  her  breast,  has  given  rise 
to   the  fable,   referred   by  some  writers,  to  the  pretended  habit 
which  these  birds  had  of  opening  their  breast  to  feed  their  young 
family  on  their  own  blood. 

22.  The  CORMORANTS, —  Phalacrocorax, — have   an   elongated, 
compressed    beak,  the  upper   mandible   hooked  at  the  end,  the 
skin  of  the  throat  is  but  little  dilatable,  and  does  not  form  a  pouch 
as  in  the  Pelicans;  the  nail  of  the  middle  toe  is  toothed  like   a 
saw,  and  the  tail,  which  consists  of  fourteen  feathers,  is   round. 
They  are  excellent  divers :  they  ordinarily  swim  with    only  the 
head  above  water,  and  they  pursue  fishes,  upon  which  they  feed, 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  entirely  under  water.     Their  flight  is 
rapid    and  sustained;  but  on  land,  they  walk  badly,  and  sustain 

21 .  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Pelican  ?  What  are  its  habits  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  Cormorants?     How  is  the  common  Cor 
aorant  characterised  ? 


106  FRIGATE   BIRDS.— BOOBIES.— DARTERS. 

themselves  almost  in  a  vertical  position  by  the  assistance  of  the  tail. 
The  Common  Cormorant,  is  of  the  size  of  a  goose,  and  its  plumage 
is  greenish  black  ;  it  inhabits  the  northern  countries  of  both  con- 
tinents ;  it  nests  sometimes  in  rocky  clefts,  and  sometimes  on  trees 
or  among  rushes,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  eels.  The  Shags  belong 
to  this  genus. 

23.  The  FRIGATE  BIRDS,—  Tachypetcs, — (Plate  6,  fig.  4.)  also 
differ  from  Pelicans  in  the  absence  of  the  sub-maxillary  pouch, 
in  their  forked  tail,  and  in  their  short  feet,   the  membranes   of 
which  are  deeply  notched ;  they  have  long  wings  that  spread   to 
a  great  extent,  and  a  beak,  both  mandibles  of  which  are  curved 
at  the  end. 

24.  These  birds  only  inhabit  inter-tropical  regions,  and  their 
flight  is  so  powerful  and  rapid,  that  they  fly  to  great  distances  from 
land,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  obtained  the  name  of  Man-of- 
war  birds.     They  are  met  with  more  than  four  hundred  leagues 
at  sea,  and  they  wage  an  active  war  against  the  flying-fish, 
which,  in  order  to  escape  from  the  pursuit  of  other  fishes,  springs 
entirely  out  of  water.     Frigate  birds  also   pursue  Boobies,  and 
by  striking  them  with  their  wings  and  beak,  force  them  to  dis- 
gorge the  product  of  their  fishing,  which  they  dexterously  seize 
before  it  falls  into  the  water. 

25.  The  BOOBIES,— Sula,— very  much  resemble  the  preceding, 
but  their  beak  is  straight,  slightly  arcuate  at  the  point  and  armed 
on  the  edges,  with  teeth,  the  points  of  which  are  directed    back- 
wards ;  the  throat,  as  well  as  the  vicinity  of  the  eyes,  is  naked, 
and    but  little  extensible ;  the  wings  are  less  than  those  of  the 
Frigate  bird,  and  the  tail  is  a  little  wedge-shaped.     They  obtain 
their  name  of  Boobies  from  the  stupidity  they  display  in  submit- 
ting to  the  attacks  of  man  and  animals. 

26.  The  DARTERS,— P lotus,— (Plate  6,   fiy.  8)  resemble  the 
Cormorants  in  the  form  of  their  body,  and  in  their  feet,  but  are 
distinguished  from  them  by  the  length  of  their  neck,  their   small 
head,  and  by  their  straight,  slender  and  pointed  beak,  which  is 
dentate  on  the  edges.     They  inhabit  the  warm  countries  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  their  habits  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the 
preceding. 

27.  The  Tropic  Birds, —  Ph&ton, — differ  from  the  other  Toti- 
palmatae  in  having  the  head  entirely  feathered,  and  by  the  two 
long,  straight  feathers   of  the  tail,  which  at  a  distance  resemble 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  Frigate  Birds? 

24.  What  are  the  habits  of  Frigate  birds  f     Why  are  they  called  Man-of. 
war  birds  ? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  Boobies? 

26.  What  are  Darters  ? 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  Tropic  birds?     Why  are  they  so  called? 


LAMELLIROSTRES.  107 


straws.  They  seldom  resort  to  the  land  except  to  breed,  and 
rarely  quit  the  torrid  zone.  Their  appearance  is  an  indication 
to  navigators  of  their  vicinity  to  that  region. 

FAMILY  OF  LAMELLIROSTRES. 

28.  The  Palmipedes  of  this  family  have  a  thick  beak,  covered 
with  a  soft  skin  rather  than  true  horn,  and  its  edges  are  furnished 
with  lamella  or  little  teeth,  (/'late  6,  /fy.  6,  7,  and  9.  and  Plate 
8,  Jig.  14.);  the  tongue  is  large  and  fleshy,  and  dentate  on  its 
edges;  they  have  three  toes  in  front,  united  by  membranes,  and 
one  behind,  which  is  free.  Their  wings  are  of  moderate  length, 
and  they  live  more  on  fresh  waters  than  at  sea. 

They  are  divided  in  the  following  manner : 

LAMELLIROSTRES, 
bavin/    the   beak 


38.   What  are  the  characters  of  Palmipedes  ? 


108  SWANS.-GEP:SE. 


29.  All  the  Palmipedes  of  the  TRIBE  OF  DUCKS,  which  naturalists 
distinguish  under  the  name  of  ANAS,  have  a  moderate,    strong, 
straight  beak,  which  is  more  or  less   depressed,  convex  aoove, 
flat  below,  rounded  at  the  end,  and  terminated  by  a  smootn  scale 
in  the  form  of  a  nail.     The  edges  of  each  mandible   are  armed 
with  little  projecting  lamellae,  which  are  delicate  and  placed  trans- 
versely, and  seem  designed  to  permit  the   escape  of  water  after 
the  animal  has  seized  its  prey.     Their  food  consists   of  fishes, 
mollusca,  insects,  grains,  &c.     To  obtain  their  nourishment,  some 
submerge  themselves  entirely,  while  others  remain  on  the  surface, 
and  only  plunge  in  their  head  and  long  neck.     They  are  seldom 
on  land. 

30.  This  tribe  is  composed  of  Swans,  Geese,  and  Ducks  properly 
so  called. 

31.  The  SWANS, — Cygnus,—  (Plate  6,  fig.  9.)  are  the  largest 
birds  of  this  group,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  beak 
which  is  as  wide  in  front  as  it  is  behind,  and  higher  than  it  is  wide 
at  its  base.     They  feed  chiefly  on  grains,  and  the  roots  of  aquatic 
plants.     They  swim  with  such  facility,  that  a  man  walking  rapidly 
along  the  shore  would  have  difficulty  in  keeping  up  with  them, 
and  they  fly  with  a  great  deal  of  lightness  and  strength.  Whether 
on  the, water  or  in  the  air,  they  are  almost  always  seen  in  troops. 
Their  young  quit  the  nest,  swim  and  eat  alone  immediately  after 
they  are  hatched.     Their  down,  which  is  very  fine,  serves  for 
many  purposes.     Their  plumage  is  generally  white. 

32.  These  birds  have  long  been  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
their  form,  and  for  the  grace  with  which  they  swim.     Their 
trachea  is  bent  on  the  sternum,  but  their  voice  is  not   rendered 
therefore  more  agreeable,  and  the  ancients  have  very  gratuitously 
given  celebrity  to  the  song  of  the  Swan. 

33.  In  New  Holland,  there  is  a  Black  Swan,  which  is  the  size 
of  the  common  species,   but  its   carriage   is  less  graceful  and 
elegant. 

34.  GEESE, — dtnser, —  have  a  moderate  or  short  beak,  narrower 
before  than  behind,  and  higher  than  wide  at  its  base;  their  legs 
which   are  longer  than    those  of  Ducks  properly  so  called,  and 
placed   nearer  to  the   middle   of  the  body,  give  them   greater 
facility  in  walking*.     They  feed  on   aquatic   plants   and   grains. 

29.  How   are   Palmipedes  of  the  tribe  of  Ducks  characterised  f     Upon 
what  do  they  feed  ? 

30.  What  genera  compose  the  tribe  of  Ducks? 
39.  What  are  the  characters  of  Swans? 

32  What  is  peculiar  in  the  trachea  of  Swans  ? 

33  ire  all  Swans  white  ? 

31     tfhat  are  tb    iharacters  of  Geese  ?     What  are  their  habit* 7 


DUCKS.— EIDERS.  109 


They  Kve  almost  constantly  on  great  humid  prairies  and  vast 
marshes.  Wild  geese  live  in  numerous.troops  and  always  have 
some  of  them  on  the  watch :  they  are  extremely  suspicious. 
The  males  are  not  distinguishable  from  the  females  by  the  colour 
of  their  plumage ;  they  moult  but  once  a  year ;  their  voice  is 
strong  and  clamorous.  They  breed  on  the  ground,  swim  little, 
and  do  not  dive  at  all.  They  fly  in  flocks,  in  two  lines  in  the  form 
of  an  angle,  or  in  a  single  line,  when  the  troop  is  numerous ;  the 
one  which  is  at  the  point  of  the  angle,  or  at  the  head  of  the  line, 
falls  into  the  rear  when  fatigued,  and  they  all  succeed  each  other 
in  turn. 

35.  DUCKS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — ./?«0s, — (Plate   6,  fig.   6.) 
comprise  species  almost  all  of  which  resemble  each  other,  but  still 
differ  in  slight  particulars.     They  differ  from  Swans  and  Geese, 
not  only  in  their  beak,  but  also  in  being  much  smaller  and  having 
a  shorter  neck ;  their  trachea  is  inflated  at  its  bifurcation. 

36.  Ducks   are  spread   through   all  the  marshy  or  maritime 
countries  of  the  globe.     They  are  aquatic  and    migratory,   and 
approach  the  sea  coast  in  flocks  during  autumn  and  winter,  but 
frequent  fresh  water  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers,  particularly   those 
with  grassy  and  sedgy  borders;  they  prefer  shallow    places   in 
which  they  can  fathom  the  bottom  with  the   beak  without   the 
necessity  of  diving  deeply,  to  which  they  only  have  recourse  in 
the  breeding  season,  or  to  avoid  their  enemies.     The  species  are 
numerous,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  temperate  regions. 

37.  Ducks  are  divided  into  Sea-ducks,  Eiders,  Common  Duckst 
Teals,  &c. 

The  Common  Duck  has  been  long  domesticated,  and  inhabits 
all  our  poultry  yards. 

38.  [The  Canvass  Backed  Duck, — Anm  valisneria, — so  well 
known  as  a  delicacy  of  the  table,  is  a  species  peculiar  to  the  con- 
tinent of  America.     It  is  of  a  steel  gray ;  beak  straight,  nearly 
two  and  a  half  inches  long,  its  sides  parallel.     The  Male  is  white 
waved  with  black ;  the  head  tinged  with  black  anteriorly,  and 
the  neck  glossy  chestnut :  a  black  pectoral  belt.     Female,  dull 
whitish,  waved  with  black ;  head,  neck,  and  breast,  brownish.] 

39.  The  Eider,— rfnas  nioUissima.— (  Somateria,)  is  a  species 
of  Duck  celebrated  for  the  down  which  it  furnishes,  known  under 
the  name  of  Eider  down.     The  male  is  nearly  two  feet  long,  and 

35.  What  are  Ducks  properly  so  called  ?     What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the 
trachea  in  Ducks  properly  so  called  7 

36.  What  are  the  habits  of  Ducks  ? 

37.  How  are  Ducks  divided  ? 

38.  How  is  the  Canvass  Backed  Duck  characterised  ? 

39.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Eidur  ?    How  is  Eider  down  obtained? 

2F* 


110  MERGANSERS. 


its  alar  extent  is  about  two  feet  eight  inches  ;  it  is  whitish,  with 
the  front,  and  sides  of  the  crown,  belly,  and  tail,  black.  The 
female,  which  is  smaller,  is  gray,  speckled  brown.  Clothed  in  a 
thick  fur,  the  Eiders  brave  the  rigours  of  the  coldest  countries, 
and  advance  as  far  as  Spitzbergen.  The  down  which  they  pluck 
from  the  breast  and  belly  to  line  their  nest,  is  sought  for  with  a 
great  deal  of  pains  in  those  countries  where  these  birds  are 
common :  it  is  the  softest,  the  lightest,  the  warmest,  and  most 
elastic  of  all  downs,  that  which  is  plucked  from  the  dead  bird  is 
of  inferior  quality. 

40.  The  genus  of  MERGANSERS, — Mergiis, — comprises  those 
Palmipede  Lamellirostres  that  have  a  moderate  or  long,  straight, 
slender  beak,  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  and  almost  cylindrical 
cone,  wide  at  the  base,  and  the  point  of  the  upper  mandible  is 
very  much  curved  and  hooked.  The  edges  of  both  mandibles 
are  serrated,  and  the  teeth  are  directed  backwards,  (Plate  6, 
fig.  7.);  the  nostrils  are  about  the  middle  of  the  beak;  the  feet 
are  short,  and  the  toes  are  entirely  palmate ;  the  posterior  toe  is 
free,  and  has  a  border.  These  birds  swim  perfectly,  often  having 
only  their  head  above  water,  and  they  dive  still  better ;  their 
flight  is  rapid  and  sustained,  but  from  the  posterior  position  of 
their  feet,  they  are  scarcely  capable  of  walking,  tottering  from 
side  to  side  with  the  utmost  embarrassment.  In  other  respects 
they  resemble  Ducks.  They  dwell  habitually  in  cold  countries, 
and  are  only  seen  commonly  in  temperate  climates  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  Of  the  five  species  known,  one  is  peculiar 
to  America,  the  Hooded  Merganser, —  Mergus  cucullatus, — and 
all  are  found  on  this  continent, 

We  next  proceed  to  study  the  REPTILES,  which  form  the  THIRD 
CLASS  OP  THE  BRANCH  OP  VERTEBRATA. 

40.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Mergansers  ? 


MfD    OP   THE    THIRD    BOOK    OF   NATURAL   BISTORT. 


Plate  1. 


ms--. 


CO 


11*  Anatomy  of  Birds. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    1. 

Fig.  1.  Skeleton  of  a  bird  seen  in  profile — ms,  superior  or  t^rper  man- 
dible— mi,  lower  mandible — n,  the  nasal  fossce — /,  the  tympanic  bone — or 
the  orbit — oc,  cervical  vertebrae — vd,  dorsal  vertebrae — 7,  vertebrae  of  the  tail 
r-c,  the  ribs — ae,  costal  appendices — s,  sternum — om,  the  scapula — cZ,  the 
clavicle — A,  the  humerus — re,  the  radius  and  cubitus  or  ulna— p,  the  thumb 
rf,  the  median  finger— pd,  rudiment  of  the  thumb — i,  the  iliac  bones, 
which  ibrm  the  pelvis—/,  the  femur— ft,  tibia—  pe,  the  fibula — fa,  the  tarsus 
—  di,  the  internal  tpe — dm,  median  toe — de,  external  toe — dp,  posterior  toe. 

Fig.  2  The  sternum  and  bones  of  the  shou'der — «,  the  sternum — 6,  the 
brisket  or  keel — c,  the  clavicles — co,  the  coracoid  bone — o,  the  scapula — A, 
a  part  of  the  humerus. 

Fig.  3.  The  head  of  a  wood-pecker  to  show  the  position  of  the  tongue,  (/,) 
and  the  horns  of  the  hyoid  bone  (i),  passing  from  below  over  the  back 
part  of  the  head. 


Plate  2. 


•  m 


~br 


— r 


-cl 


Anatomy  of  Birds. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    2. 

Fig.  1.  The  thorax  and  abdomen  of  an  Ostrich,  opened  to  show  the  great 
air  cells  which  communicate  directly  with  the  lungs,  and  transmit  the  air 
to  different  parts  of  the  body,  t,  the  trachea  or  wind-pipe — 6,  the  bronchia 
— pp,  the  lungs,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  concealed  by  the  great  air 
cells — c,  c,  c,  c,  air  cells  at  the  bottom  of  which  may  be  perceived  the  open, 
ings  of  the  bronchiae — e,  other  cells,  which  communicate  with  the  preceding 
co,  the  hearl — gt  the  gizzard — t,  the  intestines. 

Fig.  2.  The  inferior  larynx  of  a  singing  bird — f,  the  trachea — 6r,  the 
bronchiae — 2,  the  inferior  larynx — m,  muscles  of  the  vocal  apparatus. 

Fig.  3.  The  tongue  and  trachea  of  a  bird — Z,  the  tongue — i,  the  cornu 
of  the  os  hyoYdes — Ztf,  the  superior  larynx — (r,  the  trachea — £,  the  glottis. 

Fig.  4.  The  digestive  apparatus  of  a  pigeon — a,  the  oasophagus— j,  the 
ingluvies  or  crop, — o,  the  proventruulus  or  bulbus  glandulosus  (Seepage  21.) 
— g,the  gizzard — t,  the  small  intestine — i^,  the  large  intestine— /,  the  liver- 
pa,  the  pancreas — o,  the  ovary — 00,  the  oviduct — r,  the  kidneys — cu,  canal 
of  the  ureter — clt  the  cloaca. 


Plate  3. 


Fig.  1  to  8. — Order  of  Rapaces. 
Fig.  9  to  12. — Order  of  Passer  ince. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    3. 


(Generic  names.) 

Fig.     1.  Eagle Falco. 

2.  Eared  Owl Otug. 

3.  Griffin Gypaetos. 

4.  Percnopterus.    ....  Percnopterus. 

5.  Great  Horned  Owl.    .     .  Strix. 

6.  Vulture Vultur. 

7.  Falcon Falco. 

8.  Kite Mihus. 

Fig     9.  Ortolan Emberiza. 

10.  Kingfisher Alcedo. 

11.  Humming-bird.     .    .    .  Trochilus. 

12.  Calao. Buceros. 


Order 

of 
RapacM, 

or 
Birds  of    Prey 


Order 
of 


2G 


Plate  4. 


Fig.  1  to  4. — Order  of  Passerines. 

Fig.  5  to  10.— Order  of  Scansoriae.     Fig.  11  to  12.— Order  of 
Gallinacete. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    4. 

(Generic  Names.) 

Fig.     1.  Swallow Hirundo.  "j  Order 

2.  Goatsucker Caprimulgus.  I 

3-  Crossbill Loxia.  T     Passerittffl> 

4.  Lark *    .    .     A  la  u  da.  J 

Ftg.    5.  Wryneck Yunx.  1 

6.  Cuckoo Cuculus.  n^»» 

.  uruer 

7.  Maccaw Ara.  I  of 

8.  Cockatoo. Psittacus.  o«.n.«rl- 

9.  Woodpecker Picu«.  Scansoria. 

0.  Toucan Ramphastos.  J 

Fi£.  11.  Pheasant Phasianus.  )         Order  of 

12.  tlocco. Alector.  \       Gailinacea 


Plate  5. 


~--<IUM\Ml,«)W,r,\\«uv*va«» 

Q.  Thomas,  Sc. 


Fig.  1  to  4. — Order  of  Gallinacece. 
12  Fig.  5  to  11.— Order  of  Grallatoria. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    5, 

(Generic  names.) 

Fig.     1.  Guinea-fbwL    ....     Numida.          *] 

2.  Quail Colurnix.  Order  of 

3.  Heath-cock.     ....     Tetrao.  [      Galliuacea. 

4.  Pigeon Columba.          J 

Fig.    5.  Ostrich Struthio.  "\ 

6.  Plover.  ......  Ckaradrius. 

7.  Lapwing. Vaneltus.  n,/;— «» 

8.  StoVk.   ! Ciconia.  [     Q^rL 

9.  Spoonbill PlataUa.  GrallatorMB, 

10.  Ibi8 Ibis. 

11.  Flamingo.      .    .    •    •  Phaenicopteru$.  J 


Plate  0. 


G.  Thomas,  Se. 


Fig.  1  to  9. — Order  of  Palmipedes. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    6, 


(Generic  names.) 

Aptenodytes. 
Podiceps. 
Pelicanux. 
Tachypetes. 


Fig     1.  Penguin.    -     •    •    « 

2.  Grebe.    ..... 

3.  Pelican.       •    -    -    • 

4.  Frigate  bird.  -    -    - 

5.  Gull.      •>••••     JMTUS. 

6.  Duck.    ......     Anas. 

7.  Merganser.     ....     Mergvs. 

8.  Darter.  ....     Plotus. 

9.  Swan.    ......     Cygnua. 


Order 
V         of 
Palmipede* 


Plate  7. 


12  *  Anatomy.— Feet. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    7. 

Fig.  1.  A  foot  formed  for  walking  and  perching,  claws  retractile;  as  in 
the  genus  Falco. 

Fig.  2.  A  foot  formed  for  walking  and  perching,  claws  not  retractile,  as 
in  the  Gallinaceous  tribe. 

Fig.  3.  A  climbing  foot  as  in  the  Woodpeckers, — Picus. 

Fig.  4.  A  walking  foot,  as  in  the  genus  Corvus. 

Fig.  5.  Foot  of  the  King.fisher,  showing  the  situation  and  connection  of 
the  toes. 

Fig.  6.  A  spurred  leg,  as  in  the  genus  Phasianus. 

Fig.  7.  A  leg  bare  above  the  knee,  as  in  all  the  Waders. 

Fig.  8.  A  semi-palmated  foot,  as  in  the  genus  Ardea. 

Fig.  9.  A  pinnated  foot,  with  the  edges  of  the  toes  scalloped,  as  in  the 
genera  Fulica,  Phalaropus. 

Fig.  10.  A  lobated  foot,  the  toes  margined  by  membranous  edgingf,  aa 
in  the  genus  Podiceps. 

Fig.  11.  A  three-toed  webbed  foot  as  in  the  genus  Alca,  Uria. 

Fig.  12.  A  palmated  foot,  as  in  the  genera  Anas,  Recurvirostra. 

Fig.  13.  A  palmated  foot,  with  four  toes  connected,  as  in  the  genn* 
Pelicanus. 

Fig.  14.  The  Goldfinch ;  a,  beak  or  bill,— 6,  the  front, — c,  the  cheek, — 
<7,  the  hind-head,  or  occiput, — c,  the  breast, — •/,  the  back, — gt  spurious  wing, 
— A,  shoulder,  and  lesser  wing  coverts, — t,  secondary  quill  feathers, — j,  j, 
greater  quill  feathers, — fc,  tertials, — Z,  tail  coverts-, — m,  tail, — n,  great  wing 
coverts, — o,  auricles  or  auditory  conch, — p,  the  throat. 

Fig.  15.  A  spur. 

Fig.  16   A  pectinated  foot,  as  in  the  genus  Tetrao. 


Plate  8. 


Anatomy. — Beaks. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    8. 

Fig  1.  A  hooked  bill  as  in  the  genus  Falco.  Cere,  a  bare  soft  ikin  it 
the  base  of  the  bill,  Fig  15. 

Fig.  2.  A  serrated  or  notched  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Ramphastos. 

Fig.  3.  A  cultrated  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Corvus.  Reflected  vibrissce. 
Fig.  16. 

Fig.  4.  A  cuneated  or  wedge-shaped  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Picus.  A  cylin- 
drical or  extensile  tongue,  Fig.  17. 

Fig.  5.  A  curvaled  bill.    An  erected  crest.  Fig  18. 

Fig.  6.  Nostrils  covered  by,  or  contained  in  a  tube,  as  in  the  genus 
Procellaria. 

Fig»  7.  A  straight,  compressed,  cultrated  bill.  Lore,  a  bare  skin  surround- 
ing the  eyes,  Fig.  20.  Projecting  edge  of  the  upper  mandible,  by  means  of 
which  the  birds,  whose  beaks  are  thus  constructed,  cut  their  food  as  with 
scissors,  Fig.  24. 

Fig.  8.  A  hooked  notched  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Lanius,  (Shrike,)  the 
notch,  Fig.  21. 

Fig.    9.  A  recurved  bill,  as  in  the  genus,  Recurvirostra. 

Fig.  10.  A  grooved  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Alca. 

Fig.  11.  A  spoon-shaped  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Platalea.  Nail  at  the  t| 
of  the  bill,  Fig.  22. 

Fig.  12.  A  compressed  bill,  as  in  Geese. 

Fig.  13.  A  depressed  bill,  as  in  Ducks. 

Fig.  14.  A  serrated  or  toothed  bill,  as  in  the  genus  Mergua. 


BOOK  IV. 


VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

CLASS  III.  — REPTILIA. 

HERPETOLOGY:  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  REPTILES, 

GLASS  IV.  — PISCES. 

ICHTHYOLOGY:  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  FISHES, 


2H 


Plate  1, 


5.    B 


Reptiles. 


HERPETOLOGY. 


LESSON    I. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS. — Form. — Skeleton.  —  Motion.  —  Nerr.out 
System.  —  Senses.  —  Nutrition.  — Apparatus  oj  Digestion. — 
Blood. —  Respiration. — Lungs — Temperature. —  Secretion. — 
Eygs. — Classification. 

CLASS    OF    REPTILES. 

1.  That  part  of  Natural  History  which  treats  of  Reptiles,  is 
termed  Herpetology,— from  the  Greek,  erpctun,  a  creeping  thing, 
a  reptile,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

2.  The  CLASS  OP  REPTILES  comprises  those  oviparous   verte- 
brate animals  that  have  cold  blood,  an  aerial  respiration,  and  an 
incomplete    circulation.     They    have   lungs  like  mammals  and 
birds;  but   their  circulatory  apparatus  is  always  so   arranged 
that  a  part  of  the  venous  blood  mingles  with  the  arterial,  without 
having   passed  through  the  respiratory  organ,  and  in  general, 
this  mixture  takes  place  in  the  heart,  which  has  a  single  ventricle, 
into  which  both  auricles  open. 

3.  In  their  general  form,  reptiles  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to 
mammals  than  to  birds  ;  but  in  this  respect  they  vary  very  much. 
The  head  is  almost  always  small,  and  the  body  much  elongated, 
(Plate  \,.fig.  l}  6,  nnd  7.);  sometimes  they  are  entirely  without 
extremities,  or  only  possess  vestiges  of  them  ;  but  most  of  these 
animals   have   four  paws,    formed    for    walking  or   swimming. 
Ordinarily,  their  extremities  are  too  short  to   prevent  the  body 
from  dragging  on  the  ground,  and,  instead  of  being  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  body  and  moving  in  this  direction,  they  generally 
stand  out  from  the  side  and  move  from  without  inwards,  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  axis  of  the  body,  an  arrangement  very  unfavour- 
able to  locomotion  ;  most  reptiles  seem  to  creep  rather  than  walk, 
from  which  circumstance  they  derive  their  name. 

1.  What  is  Herpetology  ?  . 

2.  What,  are  the  general  characters  of  those  animals  that  are  comprised 
in  the  Class  of  Reptiles? 

3.  What  class  of  anirn  ils  do  Reptiles  more  closely  resemble  in  their  genera! 
form  ?    What  is  the  position  of  their  extremities?    From  wh;it  circumstance 
do  they  derive  their  name? 


22 SK  EL  ETON.— MOVEMENT. 

4.  The   skeleton  in  reptiles  is  composed  of  almost  the  same 
bones  as  those  we  have  already  seen  in  mammals  and  birds; 
but  it  often  happens  that  some  among  them  are  entirely  wanting : 
serpents,  for  example,  have  no  extremities,  nor  have  they   any 
sternum;  and  frogs  have  r.Q  ribs. 

5.  The  head,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  bones,  resembles  that 
of  birds  more  than  that  of  mammals;  the  cranium  is  small ;  the 
face  is  generally  much  elongated,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  suspended 
from  a  tympanic  bone,  which  is  placed  between  it  and  the  cranium. 
In  general,  the  head  is  articulated  with    the  vertebral   column 
oy  a  single  tubercle  (or  condyK)  which  has  many   facettes,  and 
possesses  only  very  slight  mobility. 

6.  The  structure  of  the  vertebral  column  differs  extremely  in 
the  different  reptiles :  in  serpents  it  is  very  long  and  very  flexi- 
ble ;  in  frogs  it  is  very  short  and  slightly  moveable ;  and  in  tor- 
to:ses  its  middle  part  is  united  so  as  to  form  a  single  bony  piece. 

7.  Generally,  the  ribs  are  very  numerous  ;  in  serpents,    they 
exist  through  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  body ;  the  same  is 
the  case  in  certain  reptiles  resembling  lizards,  while   in   others, 
these  bones  are  merely  rudimentary,  or  entirely  wanting.     In 
tortoises,  they  are  soldered,  as  it  were,  to  each  other ;  and  with  the 
dorsal  portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  form  the  great  shield  or 
buckler  which  covers  the  backs  of  these  animals,  and  which   is 
called  carapax. 

8.  Without  being  as  much  developed,  the  bones  of  the  shoulder 
are  very  analogous  to  those  of  birds.     The   anterior   extremily 
consists  of  an  arm  composed  of  a  single  bone,  the    humerus  ;  a 
fore-arm  consisting  of  a  radius  and  ulna,  generally  distinct  from 
each  other,  and  a  hand  which  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  fin, 
and  sometimes  resembling  a  foot. 

9.  The  movements  of  reptiles,  are,  in  general,  less  active,  and 
less  sustained  than  those  of  animals  with  warm  blood,  as  might 
be  anticipated  from  the  more  limited  character  of  their    respira- 
tion; for  there  always  exists  an  intimate  relation  between  these 
two  functions.     Their  muscles  receive  less  blood,  and  are   of  a 
whitish  tint ;  and  it  is  also  remarked  that  these  organs  preserve  their 
irritability  for  a  longer  time  after  they  have  been  removed  from  the 
influence  of  the  nervous  system.     In  warm-blooded  animals,  the 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skeleton  in  Reptiles? 
,      5.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  head  in  Reptiles  ? 

6.  Is  the  structure  of  the  vertebral  column  the  same  in  all  Reptiles? 

7.  What  is  the  character  of  the  ribs  in  Reptiles  ? 

8.  What  is  the  characttr  of  the  anterior  extremity  of  Reptiles? 

9    Why  are  the  motions  of  Reptiles  less  active   than   those  of  mammals 
and  birds  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  muscles  of  Reptiles  ? 


NERVOUS   >YSTEM. 23 

destruction  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  or  the  section  of  a 
nerve  is  at  once  followed  by  a  complete  paralysis,  either  general 
or  local,  and,  very  soon  after  this  phenomenon  occurs,  it  becomes 
impossible  to  excite  muscular  contraction,  by  pricking  or  other- 
wise stimulating  the  affected  parts.  In  reptiles,  on  the  contrary, 
the  faculty  of  moving  under  the  influence  of  stimulation,  is  pre- 
served under  similar  circumstances,  for  a  very  long  time;  for 
example,  the  tail  of  a  lizard  detached  from  the  body,  continues 
to  move  for  several  hours,  and  we  may  often  see  a  tortoise  that 
has  been  apparently  dead  for  several  days,  move  its  limbs  when 
the  muscles  are  stimulated  by  pricking  them.  We  may  conclude 
that,  in  these  animals,  the  division  of  the  physiological  labour  and 
localization  of  the  different  functions  of  the  nervous  system,  are 
not  carried  so  far  as  in  mammals  and  birds,  and  hence  there  is  a 
less  intimate  dependence  of  the  different  parts  of  the  economy 
upon  each  other. 

10.  The  encephalon  of  reptiles  is  but  little  developed  ;  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain  is  smooth  and  without  convolutions.     The  two 
hemispheres   are  oval,  more  or  less  elongated,   and  internally 
hollowed  by  a  single  ventricle.     The  spinal  marrow,   compared 
with  the  brain,  is  very  much  developed,  and  it  is  also  remarked 
that  the  nerves  are  larger,  proportionally  to  the  volume   of  the 
central  parts  of  the  nervous  system,  than  in  the  superior  animals. 

11.  Most  reptiles  have  no  special    organ    of  touch,  and   the 
nature  of  their  integuments  prevents  their  tactile  sensibility  from 
being  much  developed.  It  is  true,  that  in  some  of  them  the  skin  is 
entirely  naked,  and  the  epidermis  is  scarcely  distinct ;  but,  for  the 
most  part,  it  is  covered  by  a  thick  epidermic  layer,  composed  of 
horny  or  bony  plates  which  are  more  or  less  hard.     In   reptiles 
with  a  naked  skin,  and  an  epidermis  of  moderate  consistence,  it 
is  frequently  detached  and  renewed  ;  and,  in  those  animals  where 
it  is  most  consistent,  it  becomes  detached,  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year,  to  give  place  to  a  new  epidermis  ;  sometimes  this  kind 
of  moulting  is  partial,  or  at  least,  the  epidermis  only  falls  off  in 
flakes  ;  but  at  other  times  it  is  entirely  detached,  and    preserves 
the  form  of  the  animal  upon  which  it  grew.     Serpents  shed  their 
coats  in  this  way  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

12.  The  eyes  are  ordinarily  small,  but  in  their  structure,  are 
/ike  those  of  mammals  and  birds ;  but  there  is  rarely  found  in 
them  any  prolongation  or  fold  of  the  retina  resembling  the  pecten. 

10.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  Encephalon  ?     What  is  remark 
able  in  the  nerves  of  Reptiles  '/ 

1 1.  Have  Reptiles  an  organ  of  touch  ?     Is    the   epiaV  rmis  permanent    Ln 
Reptiles  ? 

12.  What  is  the  general  character    of  the  eyes  of  Reptiles?     Have  the? 
any  eye  lids  ?  2  H 


94  ORGANS  Of  SENSE. 


The  orbits  are  incomplete,  and  generally  there  is  a  third  eye-lid 
which  is  semi-transparent,  and  moves  transversely. 

13.  The  structure  of  the  ear  is  less  complicated  than   in   the 
superior  animals.     The  external  ear  is  almost    always   entirely 
wanting;  there  is  no  auditory  canal,  and  the  tympanum  is  on  a 
level  with  the  head  and  exposed,  or  concealed  beneath  the  skin. 
The  organ  of  smell  is  but  little  developed ;  the  nasal  fossae  are 
generally  very  small,  and  the   pituitary    membrane — the   lining 
membrane  of  the  nose — presents  few,  or  no  folds. 

14.  Most  reptiles  swallow  their  food  without  chewing  it,  and 
their  sense  of  taste  appears  to  be  very  dull.    The  tongue  is  some- 
times thick  and  fleshy  ;  but,  in  general,  it  is  thin,  dry,  very  pro- 
tractile, and  often  bifid  ;  it  sometimes  becomes  an  organ  of  pre- 
hension, the  play  of  which  is  very  remarkable. 

15.  Few    reptiles   live   exclusively    upon    vegetable    matter. 
Almost  all  of  them  are  carnivorous,  and,  with  some   exceptions, 
they  hunt  living  prey  which  they  generally  swallow  whole:  the 
selection  of  the  animals  upon  which  they  feed,  is,  in  a  measure, 
regulated  by  the  dimensions  of  their  mouth.     Most  of  them  drink 
hut  little,  and  they  can  fast  for  a  very  long  time  without  incon- 
venience. 

16.  The  mouth  is  deeply  cleft,  and  generally  armed  with  teeth, 
which  are  sometimes  found  in  the  palate  as  well  as  in  the  jaws; 
they  are  almost  always  of  a  conical   form,  and,    in  general,   in 
place  of  being  lodged  in  alveoli,  they  are  soldered,  as  it  were,  by 
their  base  to  the  bone  that  sustains  them.     In  some  reptiles  that 
are  without  teeth,  the  jaws   are  covered  by  a  horny  plate,  the 
edges  of  which  are  trenchant,  like  the  beak  of  a  bird  ;  but  they 
never  have  fleshy  and  moveable  lips  like  mammals. 

17.  Glandular   organs   in   considerable    numbers    ordinarily 
surround  the  mouth  of  reptiles,  and  pour  into  it  either  a   gluey 
humor  or  saliva ;  sometimes  there  are  also  glands,  very  closely 
resembling  salivary  glands,  which  secrete  a  violent  poison. 

18.  As  it  is  not  necessary  for  their   food  to  remain    in   the 
mouth  for  mastication,  a  veil  of  the  palate  would  have  been,   in 
general,  useless,  and,  in  fact  it  rarely  exists.     In    most   of  these 
animals,  the  pharynx  is  not  distinct  from  the  mouth,   and   often 

13.  Is  the  organ  of  hearing  the  same  in  Reptiles  as  it  is    in    mammals? 
Is  the  sense  of  smell  acute  or  otherwise? 

14.  Have  Reptiles  a  strong  sense  of  taste  ?     What  is  the  character  of  the 
tongue  ? 

15.  Upon  what  do  Reptiles  generally  feed  ?     Do  they  drink  much? 

16.  What  is  the  form  of  the  teeth  of  Reptiles?     Where  are  they  situate  ? 
Do  they  exist  in  all  Reptiles  ? 

17.  What  is  the  character  of  the  glands  found  about  the  mouth  ? 

18.  Have  Reptiles  any  veil  of  tne  palate  ?     What  is  the  character  of  the 
oharynx  ?     What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  digestive  organs? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  2i 

there  is  not  a  well  defined  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
oesophagus  and  stomach,  which  is  simple  and  various  in  form, 
The  intestines  are  short  and  without  acoecal  appendix  ,  the  large 
intestine  differs  little  from  the  small,  and  terminates  in  a  cloaca. 
The  liver  is  generally  voluminous,  and  there  is  a  gall  bladder, 
pancreas,  and  spleen. 

19.  The  blood  of  these  animals  is  red,  and  its  globules  are 
elliptical.  Their  volume  is  much  greater  than  in  mammals  and 
birds,  and  the  number  of  them  is  considerably  less.  The  dispo- 
sition of  the  circulatory  apparatus  varies;  but  there  is  always  a 
direct  communication  between  the  vascular  system  of  red 
(arterial)  blood,  and  the  vascular  system  of  black  (venous)  blood, 
so  that  these  two  liquids  mingle  with  each  other,  and  the  organs 
receive  only  blood,  imperfectly  arterialised  by  the  act  of  respiraton. 
The  heart  is  almost  always  composed  of  two  auricles,  (ot/,  og,) 
which  empty  into  a  single  ventricle,  (r.)  ,-  ac  , 
Therefore,  the  arterial  blood  coming  from 
the  lungs  and  received  in  the  left  auricle, 
(o</.),  and  the  venous  blood  coming  from  *•*• 
different  parts  of  the  body  into  the  right 

auricle,  mingle  in  a  common  ventricle,  (r.)  \eZs\^<^  Fie  1 

One  part  of  this  mixture  returns  by  the  *r  V^^ 

aorta  to  the  different  organs  it  is  des- 
tined to  nourish,  and  another  goes  to 
the  lungs,  through  the  pulmonary  arte- 
ries (a/v,)  which  rise  immediately  from 
the  common  ventricle  or  from  the  aorta  itself.*  It  appears  that 
in  crocodiles,  the  heart  is  the  same  in  form  as  it  is  in  birds  and 
mammals,  and  a  partition  separates  the  right  ventricle  from  the 
left :  therefore  the  arterial  does  not  rningle  with  the  venous  blood; 
but  there  is  a  particular  arrangement  of  the  arteries  which  effects 
this  mixture  at  a  short  distance  from  the  heart,  and  the  vessels 

*  Explanation  of  the  Figure. —  Heart  and  principal  vessels  of  a  tortoise, — 
»,  ventricle, — o</,  right  auricle,  which  receives  the  blood  from  the  great 
venous  trunk,  (vc,)  and  pours  it  into  the  ventricle,  (») ; — og-,  left  auricle, 
which  receives  th>-  aiterial  blood  coming  from  the  lungs  by  the  pulmonary 
veins,  (vp)  and  also  pours  it  into  the  ventricle; — ag^ad,  the  two  aortas*which 
arise  from  the  single  ventricle,  and  which,  after  being  carried  backwards, 
unite  to  form  the  vertical  aorta,  (««); — oc,  brancli  of  the  right  aorta  which 
furnishes  the  carotid,  brarlii.il  arteries,  &c. — ap,  apt  the  two  pulmonary 
arteries,  the  common  trutlk  of  which  arises  from  the  ventricle  along  side  of 
the  aortas.  The  arrows  indicate  the  course  of  the  blood. 

19.  What  is  the  colour  of  the  blood  in  Reptil  s?     How  does  their  circu- 
lation differ  from  that  of  mammals  ?     What  is  the  course  of  the  circulation 
in  Reptiles? 
2 


26 RESPIRATION.— TEMPERATURE. 

of  all  the  posterior  half  of  the  body  only  receive  imperfectly 
arterialised  blood.  Until  lately,  it  was  believed  that,  in  other 
animals  of  this  class,  (the  Batrachians,)  there  was,  on  the  con- 
trary, but  a  single  ventricle,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  to  be 
otherwise. 

20.  Respiration  is  carried  on  with   little  activity   in  reptiles ; 
most  of  these  animals  consume  but  little  oxygen,  and   can  be 
deprived   of  it   for   a  long  time  without  becoming  asphyxiate. 
Temperature  exerts  the  greatest  influence  over  this  function,  and 
in  the  warm  season,  the  necessity  of  breathing  is  more  vividly 
felt  than  in  winter.     A  frog,  for  example,  deprived  of  air  in  the 
summer,  perishes  in  less  than  two  hours;  while  in  winter,  it  will 
continue  to  live  for  several  days.     In   some   reptiles,    there  are 
branchiae  (gills,)  during  the  early  period  of  life;  but  the  lungs  are 
soon  developed,  and  then  the  branchiae  disappear,  so  that  the  same 
animal  has  at  first  an  aquatic,  and  afterwards  an  aerial  respira- 
tion :  there  are  some  even  that  preserve  these  organs  throughout 
life,  and  which,  having  lungs  at  the  same  time,   are  completely 
amphibious;  but  most  reptiles  have  lungs  only.     We  must  not 
conclude  however,  that  their  respiration  is   exclusively  aerial ; 
for,  in  many  of  these  animals,  the  skin  is  also  a  respiratory  organ, 
and  can  act  on  the  air  dissolved  in  the  water  as  well  as  upon  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.     In  some  reptiles,  this  cutaneous  res- 
piration is  even  so  active  as  to  be,  under  certain  circumstances, 
sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  life. 

21.  The  organization  of  the  lungs  is  not  favourable  to  great 
activity  of  respiration  ;  their  air  cells  are  very  large,  and  conse- 
quently the  vascular  surface  designed  for  contact  with  the  air, 
is  but  of  little  extent.     They  are  not  lodged  in  a  peculiar  cavity, 
the  thorax  not  being  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  diaphragm, 
and  the  air  is  renewed  in  them  with  less  facility  and  less  regu- 
larity than  in  the  superior  animals. 

22.  Reptiles  are  all  cold  blooded  animals,  that  is,  they  do  not 
produce  sufficient  heat  to  maintain  a  temperature  above  that  of 
the  atmosphere.     Their  whole  body  is  warmed  or  cooled  at  the 
same  time  with  the  surrounding  medium,  and   the   changes   of 
temperature  which  they  experience  powerfully  influences  all  their 
functions      A  temperature  of  about  one  hundred,  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  degrees  of  Farenheit's  thermometer,  is  promptly  fatal 

20.  What  is  the  character  of  respiration  in  reptiles  ?  How  is  it  influenced 
by  different  temperatures  'f  Is  it  always  carried  on  by  the  means  of  lungs, 
"21.  How  do  the  lungs  differ  in  organization  and  situation  from  the  same 
organs  in  mammals? 

22.  Why  are  reptiles  called  cold  blooded  animals  ?  What  are  the  effect* 
of  temperature  on  the  vital  phenomena  of  reptiles  ? 


DIVISION  OF  THE  CLASS  OF  REPTILES. 


27 


to  most  of  these  animals,  and  cold  tends  to  abase  all  vital  pheno- 
mena in  them.  In  winter  most  of  them  cannot  digest  substances 
taken  in  the  stomach,  and  they  do  not  take  food.  Their  respi- 
ration is  also  lowered  in  the  most  remarkable  manner.  A  frog, 
for  example,  which,  in  summer,  dies  from  asphyxia  in  less  than 
two  hours  by  the  complete  deprivation  of  atmospheric  air,  or 
even  by  strangulation,  can,  in.  the  cold  season,  resist  asphyxia 
for  several  days,  and  live  for  many  months  without  taking  air 
into  the  lungs,  but  solely  by  the  assistance  of  cutaneous  respira- 
tion. Reduction  of  temperature  often  induces  in  reptiles,  a 
lethargic  state,  analogous  to  that  of  hibernating  animals. 

23.  Except  the  production  of  poison  in  certain  serpents,   the 
secretions  of  this  class  of  animals  are  not  particularly  remarkable, 

24.  Having  no  means  of  suckling  their  young,  reptiles  are  re- 
produced like  birds,  by  the  means  of  eggs.     In  some  instances,  the 
eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid,  and  the  animals  in  which 
this  phenomenon  takes  place,  are  said  to  be  ovoviuiparous. 

25.  This  Class  is  composed  of  four   great   natural  divisions, 
namely  :  1st.  The  Tortoises  ;  2d.  the  Lizards,  and  other  reptiles 
resembling  them  in  organization;  3d.  the  Serpents;    and   4th. 
the  Frogs  and  other  reptiles  of  analogous    structure.     These 
four  Orders  are  designated  under  the  names  of  Chelonia,  Sauria, 
Ophidia,  and  Batrachia.     The  principal  characters  which  distin 
guish  them  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table : 

(Orders.) 

C      Covered    by   a  1 
|  carapax.     (Jaws 
without  teeth,  and  >  CHELONIA. 
furnished  with  a  I 
horny  envelope.)  J 

Without  cara-  ") 
pax.  (Jaws  armed  j 
with   teeth,    and  [•  SAURIA. 
without  a  horny 
envelope.) 


No  metamorpho- 
sis. Respiration  al- 
ways aerial.  Bran- 
chiae never.  Body 
covered  by  scales, 
rings,  or  a  carapax. 


Having 

extremities  i 

moveable 

eyelids. 


Without  extremities ; 
without  moveable  eyelids  ;  teeth. 


More  or  less  transformation  in  early  life;  respiration 
at  first  aquatic,  and  ettected  by  thu  aid  of  branchice,  then 
aerial  and  pulmonary.  Skin  naked,  without  carapax  or 
scales  ;  no  nails;  almost  always  having  extremities. 


OPHIDIA. 


BATRACHIA. 


23.  Are  the  secretions  of  Reptiles  remarkable  in  any  particular  ? 

24.  By  what  means  are  Reptiles  re-produced  ? 

25.  Into   how  many   orders  is  the  class  of  Reptiles  divided  ?     How  ara 
these  orders  designated? 


• 


28  TORTOISES. 


LESSON    II. 

ORDER  OF  CHELONIANS,  or  TORTOISES. — Organization. —  Damon 
into  four  Families. — Land  Tortoises. — Fresh  water  Tortoise*. 
—  River  Tortoises. — Sea  Tortoises. —  Tortoise  Shell:  its  use. 

ORDER     OF     CHELONIA. 

Fig.  3. 


GREEK    TORTOISE. 

1.  Tortoises  are  recognised  at  first  sight  by  the  curious  defen- 
sive armour  with  which  nature  has  provided  them.     A  double 
shield  envelopes  all  parts  of  their  body,  except  the  head  and  neck, 
the  four  paws  and  tail,  which  in  geneial,  may  be  also  concealed 
in  this  species  of  solid  box. 

2.  When  studying  the  mammalia,  we  mentioned  some  animals 
that  have  the  body  protected  by  a  sort  of  shell.     The  Armadillo 
furnished  an  example ;  but  that  armour,  formed  only  of  aggluti- 
nated hair,  or  by  a  particular  modification  of  the  epidermic  layers 
of  the  skin,  in.no  wise  resembles  the  double  shield  of  the    Tor- 
toises; for  the  latter  is  composed  of  bones,  which  are  widened, 
and  intimately  united  to  each  other ;  the  carapux,  (2.)  or  upper 
shell  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  ribs  and  dorsal  vertebras ;  the 
plastrvm,   (3.)   or  lower  shell,  is   the  sternum.     Consequently, 
these  organs  are  a  portion  of  the  skeleton  which,  instead  of  being 
lodged  in  the  substance  of  the  soft  parts,  has  become  superficial, 
and  is  only  covered  by  a  thin,  dry  skin. 

3.  The  bony  frame  of  tortoises,  to  present  this  unusual  dispo- 
sition, must  be,  of  course,  extremely  modified :  still,  we  find  in 

1.  What  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  Tortoises  ? 

2.  What  is  the  essential  constitution  of  the  upper,  and  of  the  lower  eheil 
•»f   Tortoises? 

3.  How  does  the  skeleton  of  a  Tortoise  differ  from  that  of  a  mammal  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 29 

it,  the  same  pieces  which  compose  the  skeleton  of  the  higher 
vertebrate  animals;  except  that  many  of  these  pieces  are 
changed  in  form  and  size. 

4.  When   we  examine  the  carapax  of  a  Tortoise,  (Fig.  4,) 
we  see   that   it  is  formed  of  a  considerable   number  of  bony 
plates,  united  to  each  other  by  sutures,  and  that 

eight  of  these  plates  occupy  the  middle  line,  on 
each  side  of  which,  sixteen  form  a  longitudinal 
row,  and  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  surround 
the  whole,  like  an  oval  frame  It  is  then  difficult 
to  recognise  the  nature  of  these  bones  ;  but, 
if  \ve  examine  the  carapax  on  its  inferior  sur- 
face, \\e  at  once  see  (Plate  l,./fy.  3.;  that  the 
middle  pl?ces  are  simply  dependencies  of  the 
dorsal  vertebrae,  (vd.)  In  fact,  we  find  be- 
neath it,  the  body  jf  each  one  of  these  bones  of 
its  ordinary  form,  as  well  as  the  vertebral  canal' 
for  the  lodgement  of  the  spinal  marrow ;  but  the  superior  portion 
of  the  parietes  of  the  ring,  which  constitutes  this  canal,  instead  of 
having,  as  is  usual,  the  form  of  a  transverse  bony  band,  separated 
by  a  space  from  its  fellows,  and  being  surmounted  by  a  spinous 
process,  is  here  widened  like  a  disk,  and  without  any  interrup- 
tion is  continuous  with  the  analogous  plates  belonging  to  the 
vertebra  which  precedes,  and  that  which  follows  it.  Each  of 
these  dorsal  vertebrae,  in  this  way  rendered  immoveable,  sustain 
a  pair  of  ribs  as  in  man,  and  other  vertebrata ;  but  these  ribs 
are  widened  so  as  to  touch  each  other  throughout,  or  nearly 
throughout  their  whole  length,  and  join  each  other  by  sutures  (c.) ; 
the  marginal  pieces,  which  articulate  with  the  extremity  of  the 
ribs,  and  in  a  degree  surround  the  carapax,  evidently  represent 
the  sternal  portion  of  these  bones,  which,  in  mammals,  remain 
always  in  a  cartilaginous  state;  but  in  birds,  they  are  completely 
ossified.  They  also  remain  cartilaginous  in  some  Tortoises,  and 
many  of  them  laterally  support  themselves  by  the  edges  of  the 
sternal  plastrum. 

5.  The   sternum    of  Tortoises   presents    an    extraordinary 
developement ;    it   extends  Irom  the  base  of  the  neck   to    the 
origin   of  the   tail,   and  covers   the    whole  inferior   surface   oj 
the  body,  (Fig.   5.)     The  pieces  which  enter  into   its   compo* 
sition,   are   nine  in   number,   and,  instead   of  being   placed    in 
a    row    as    in   mammals,    with  a    single    exception,    they   are 
arranged  in  pairs,  and  soldered  or  articulated  with  each   other, 

4.  What  is  the  Carapax  ?     How  is  it  formed  ? 

5.  What  is  the  Plastrum?     HQW  is  jt  constituted  ? 

2* 


30 


STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES 


Fig.  5. 


so  as  to  form  a  great  oval  plate.  Some- 
times this  shield  is  entire,  and  solid  through- 
out its  whole  extent,  sometimes  it  is  divided 
into  three  portions,  the  anterior  and  posterior 
of  which  are  slightly  moveable,  and  other 
times  it  is  hollowed  in  the  centre  like  a  frame ; 
and,  it  is  fixed  on  each  side  to  the  carapax 
either  by  a  broad  bony  prolongation,  or  by 
cartilages,  and  it  is  through  a  sort  of  slit,  or 
opening  left  betwixt  these  two  shields  or  shells, 
in  front  and  behind  this  articulation,  that  the 
head,  extremities,  and  tail,  are  protruded. 

6.  The  carapax  and  plastrum  are  only  covered   by  the  ordi- 
nary skin  of  this  animal  which  is  ordinarily  scaly.     No    muscle 
is  inserted  into  their  surface,  and  consequently  the  muscles  of  the 
neck  and  extremities  are  attached  to  the  interior   of  the  trunk. 
The  shoulder,  instead  of  being  sustained  by  the  external  parietes 
of  the  thorax,  is  lodged  in  the  interior  of  this  cavity ;  and  the 
pelvis,  so  to  speak,  is  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen ; 
and  the  marginal  pieces  of  the  carapax  are  advanced  beyond  the 
base  of  the  neck  and  tail,  so  that  these  parts  seem  to  project  from 
the  same  cavities. 

7.  The  cervical  vertebrae,  (we.)  far  from  being  immoveable  as 
they  are  in  the  back,  are  so  articulated  with  each  other  as  to 
permit,  in  general,  of  extended  movements,  similar  to  those   of 
the  neck  of  a  bird.     Their  number  is  ordinarily  eight,  and  their 
articular  surfaces  are  alternately  convex  and  concave,  instead  of 
being  plain  as  in  mammals.     In  some  tortoises  the  neck  is   not 
retractile ;  in  others,  it  can   be  completely    folded   beneath   the 
carapax,  either  by  bending  downwards  on  itself,  or  to  one  side. 

8.  The  head  of  Tortoises  is  small  compared  with  the   body, 
and  the  cranium  is  small  compared  with  the   head*     Generally, 
it  is  flattened,  and  widened  posteriorly  by  large  temporal    fossae, 
which  are  ordinarily  concealed  beneath  a  bony  arch.     The  upper 
jaw  is  solidly  fixed  to  thp  cranium,  and  is  entirely  immoveable. 
The  square,  or  tympanic  "bone,  which  supports  the  lower  jaw,  is 
articulated  in  the  same  manner  to  the  adjoining  bones,  and  forms 
the  larger  part  of  the  vicinity  of  the  frame    of  the   tympanum  ; 
the  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  bony   pieces  : 
there  are  six  on  each  side. 

6.  A  e  there  any  muscular  attachments  on  the  external    surfaces   of  the 
car  .pax  .md  plastrutn  ?  Is  the  shoulder  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  chest? 

7.  Do  the  cervical  vertebrae  move  freely  on  each  other  or  not  ?     What  is 
their  usual  number? 

8.  Is  the  upper  jaw  of  Tortoises  moveable?     How  is  the  lower  jaw  articu- 
lated with  the  nkull  /     Does  the  lower  jaw  consist  of  a  single  Done  or  more  ? 


STURCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 


31 


Fig.  6. 


9.  The  bones  of  (he  shoulder  (o.)  articulate  on  one  side  with 
the  vertebral  column,  and  with  the  sternum  on  the  other,  so  as 
to  form  a  sort  of  ring  betwixt  the  carapax  and  plastrum,  through 
which  pass  the  oesophagus  and 
trachea.*  We  here  observe 
three  branches,  which  often 
unite  solidly  with  each  other 
at  an  early  age,  and.^which 
converge  and  form  by  their 
union,  the  articular  cavity  of 
the  humerus.  One  of  these 
bones,  (o.)  suspended  to  the 
vertebral  column,  is  evidently 
the  scapula ;  the  second,  which 
is  directed  backwards,  is  ana- 
logous to  the  coracoid  bone  of 
birds,  and  the  third,  which 
descends  to  join  the  plastrum, 
is  the  representative  of  the 
clavicle,  or  at  least,  the  acro- 
mion  process  of  the  scapula, 
with  which  this  bone  ordi- 
narily articulates. 


10.  The  pelvis  (/;.)  resembles  the  ring  formed  by  the   bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

1 1.  The  extremities  are  not  very  remarkable  in  the  disposition 
of  their  bony  frame.     They  are  always  short  ;  sometimes   they 
are  truncated  at  the  end,  and  at  others  flattened  and    elongated 
into  a  paddle ;  and  in  all,  the  fingers  are  only  slightly  moveable, 
and  in  general,  they  are  not  very  distinct  externally. 

12.  The  skin  that  covers  the  body  of  these  animals  sometimes 
preserves  its  softness,  and  is  not  covered  by  scales ;  but  in  almost 
all  of  them,  it  is  furnished  with  a  horny  layer,  of  very  great  con- 
sistence.    These  scales   form  large  plates  on  the  carapax  and 
plastrum,  the  arrangement  and  aspect  of  which  vary    according 
to  the  species ;  those  which  cover  the  carapax  of  a   species  ot 

*Explanation  of  the  Figure. — Skeleton  of  a  Tortoise.  (The  sternal  plas- 
trum removed  to  show  the  interior  of  the  thorax) : — t,  the  head, — we,  cervical 
vertebrae, — vd,  dorsal  vertehrse, — c,  the  ribs,  anchylosed  with  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae to  form  the  carapax, — cs,  sternal  portion  of  the  ribs,  or  marginal  pieces 
of  the  carapax, — o,  scapula, — e/,  clavicle, — co,  coracoid  bone, — 6,  pelvis,— 
/,  femnr, — ti,  tibia, — p,  fibula. — 7,  caudal  vertebrae. 

9.  What  is  the  peculiarity  ot  the  connexion  of  ttie  bones  of  the  shoulder 
with  the  vertebral  column? 

10.  VVhat  is  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  pelvis? 

11.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  extremities  ? 

12.  What  is  Tortoise  shell  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 


Sea  Tortoise,  are  remarkably  beautiful,  and  are  employed  in  the 
arts  under  the  name  of  Tortoise  skelt. 

13.  The  eyes  of  Tortoises  are  protected  by  three  lids  like  those 
of  birds.     The  tympanum  is  large,  but  ordinarily  concealed  be- 
neath the  skin,  and  the  nostrils  are  pierced  through  the  extremity 
of  the  muzzle. 

14.  As  we  have  already  stated,  these  animals  are  unprovided 
with  teeth,  and  their  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  horny    envelope, 
with  cutting  edges,  like  those  of  birds.     Some  live   on   marine 
plants,  and  others  on  small  animals  as  well  as  vegetables.    They 
require  little  nourishment,  and  they  have  been  known   to   pass 
months,  and  even  years  without  eating. 

15.  The  elevator  muscles  of  the  jaw  are  very  powerful,  and 
when  a  Tortoise  has  seized  hold  of  any  thing  in  the  mouth,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  it  away.     The  tongue  is   more  compli- 
cated in  its  structure  than  that  of  most  Reptiles :  it  is  thick,  and 
studded  with  tiliform  papillae.     The  stomach  does  not  seem    to 
differ  from  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  digestive  tube,    except 
that  it  is  rather  larger ;  the  intestine  is  of  moderate  length,  and 
has  no  caecum;  the  liver  is  voluminous. 

16.  The  lungs  are  very  large,  and  lodged  in  the  same   cavity 

with  the  other  viscera,*  (Fig.  7.)  The 
mechanism  by  which  the  air  enters  them 
is  entirely  different  from  that  of  other 
animals  in  which  the  thorax  is  dilatable. 
The  parietes  of  this  cavity  being  immove- 
able  in  most  Tortoises,  the  air  is  forced 
into  these  organs  by  the  action  of  the 
-  mouth.  The  jaws  being  closed,  the  animal 
"-co.  'owers  tne  hyoid  bone,  which  enlarges  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  the  air  having 
entered  through  the  nostrils,  the  posterior 
nares  are  closed,  and  then  raising  the  hyoid 
bone,  as  if  to  swallow,  the  air  thus  in- 
closed, is  forced  to  descend  through  the 
trachea.  Therefore,  the  animal  breathes 
by  a  sort  of  deglutition. 


Fig.  7. 


* Explanation  of  the  Figure. — Viscera  of  a  Tortoise — m,  the  jaws, — AN 
the  hyoid  bone, — o,  the  ossophagus,  —  f,  the  trachea, — /),  p,  the  lungs, — c,  the 
heart  and  principal  vessels,—/,  the  liver,— t,  the  intestines,— c/,  the  cloaca,— 
or,  the  ovaries,  — ea,  ca,  the  carapax.  

13.  Have  Tortoises  any  eye-lids  ?     What   is   the  character  of   the  ear  ? 
Where  are  the  nostrils  situate  ? 

14.  Upon  what  do  Tortoises  feed? 

15.  What  is  peculiar  in  the  tongue  of  Tortoises?     What  is  the  character 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  ? 

16.  How  do  Toitoises  breathe  ? 


LAND  TORTOISES.  31 


17.  Tortoises  lay  eggs  with  a  hard  shell,  which  they    deposit 
in  the  sand  or  earth,  in  some  situation  exposed   to  the    sun,   to 
cause  them  to  be  hatched.     The  males  are  generally  smaller  than 
the  females,  and  are  ordinarily  recognised  by  the  plastrum  which 
is  slightly  concave.     The  duration  of  life  in  these  animals  is  very- 
great  :  authentic  instances  are  known  of  land  Tortoises  that  have 
lived  a  hundred  and  twenty  years,  even  two  hundred  years,  and 
some  cases  of  a  still  greater  age  are  related. 

18.  The  habits  of  these  animals  vary,  and    these   differences, 
which  coincide   with  the  modifications   of  their   structure,   has 
caused  them  to  be  divided  into  four    principal  families.     Their 
chief  characters  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table: 

(Families.) 
f  larg<>,   truncate    at    the    end,   and    formed    for  "| 

walking  only,  and  having  the  toes  united  in  a   f  LAND  TORTOISES. 


common  muss  as  far  as  the  nails. 

incomplete.        Cara- 
flattened,     and    prnvi-  |   pix    furnish(d     with   V  POND  TORTOISES. 


>        ded  with  distinct  toes,       scales. 


simply  united  by  a  pal- 


flattened,     in    the    form    of    large    swimming1  "^ 

paddles,   and   not    having  Hie    toes    externally   }•  SEA  TORTOISES. 

distinct.  J 

19.  The  LAND  TORTOISES,  —  Tesfiido,  —  (Plate  1,  fig.  I, 
have  feet  formed  for  walking  only;  their  legs  are,  as  it  were; 
truncate,  and  their  toes  are  short,  and  united"  to  the  nails;  their 
number  is  five  in  front,  and  four  behind.  The  carapax  is  very 
much  vaulted,  and  they  can  draw  the  head,  tail,  and  extremities, 
completely  within  their  shell.  They  live  in  the  woods,  or  in 
places  well  furnished  with  herbage  :  they  never  go  into  the  water, 
but  often  inhabit  its  neighborhood.  Most  of  them  feed  chiefly  on 
vegetables,  and  terrestrial  mollusks.  They  make  a  kind  of  bur- 
row, and  in  temperate  climates  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
hibernation.  Their  eggs  are  generally  spherical  and  furnished 
with  a  hard  shell  ;  the  female  deposites  her  eggs  in  a  hole,  and 
seems  to  take  no  care  of  her  young.  The  most  common  Euro- 
pean species  is  the  Greek  Tortoise,  —  Teshido  grceca,  —  which  is 

17    By  what  agency  are  the  rggs  of  Tortoises  hatched  ?     How  does  the 
male  differ  from  the  female?     What  is  the  duration  of  life  in  Tortoises  ? 

18.  How  is  the  order  of  Tortoises  divided? 

19.  How  is  ilie  family  of  Land  Tortoises  characterised?     What  are  Ihu 
habits  of  Land  ToitoUes  ?     Where  is  the  Greek  Tortoise  found  ? 


34 FRESH  WATER  TORTOISES. 

yellow,  spotted  with  black,  and  about  six  inches  long;  it  inhabits 
Greece,  Italy,  France,  and  the  large  Islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 
In  Itajy,  and  Sicily,  this  species  is  eaten. 

•20  THE  FAMILY  OF  POND  TORTOISES,  (or  Fresh  Water  Tor- 
toises,—  Kini/s.) — much  more  numerous  than  the  preceding,  forms 
a  sort  of  connecting  link  between  the  Land  Tortoises,  and  those 
that  are  essentially  aquatic  ;  it  is  composed  of  Chelonians  that 
commonly  live  in  marshes,  and  can  swim,  but  yet  differ  very 
little  from  the  preceding  in  their  organization.  They  are  chiefly 
distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  their  paws.  The  toes,  five 
in  number,  are  distinct,  moveable,  furnished  with  hooked  nails, 
and  united  at  their  base  by  a  palmate  membrane  of  greater  or 
less  extent;  but  these  characters  are  not  always  clearly  marked. 

21.  As  in  the  Land  Tortoises,  the   carapax   is,   in   general, 
entirely  solid  and  oval  in  form  ;  but  instead  of  being  elevated,  it 
is  more  or  less  depressed.     The  neck  is  almost  always   longer 
than  in  the  preceding,  and  presents  remarkable  variations  in  its 
conformation.     In  some,  it  is  cylindrical,  and  surrounded   by  a 
loose  skin  which  permits  it  to  be  entirely  drawn  within,   and  at 
the  middle  part  of  the  carapax,    while   in   others,    it  is  a   little 
flattened,  and  covered  by  a  close  cutaneous  sheath,  which  adheres 
to  the  muscles,  so  that  it  can  only  be  folded  laterally  on  the  body. 
Almost  all  of  them  can  conceal  their  paws  between  their  shells,  and 
like   the  preceding,   they  have  b:jt  four  nails   on  the  hind  feet. 
Their  motions  are  not  as  slow  as  those  of  the   Land    Tortoises, 
and  they  swim  with  considerable  facility.     Their  chief  food  con- 
sists of  fluviatile  mollusks,  batrachians,  and  annelides:  they  are 
found  on  the  margins  of  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivulets,   in   which 
the  current  is  not  rapid. 

22.  The  genus  of  Cistudes  belongs  to  the   division   of  fresh 
water  Tortoises,  with  a  retractile  neck :  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
sternum  which  is  furnished  with  twelve  plates,  and  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts,  both  moveable,  and  by   the   short   tail. 
The  European  Cistude,  or  Mud   Tortoise, —  Testudo  eyropceo, — 
has  a  depressed  carapax,  tolerably  smooth,  blackish  with  yellow 
points,  and  about  six  inches  long.     It   inhabits  stagnant  waters, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  it  loves  to  keep  buried  in  the  mud.     On 
the  approach  of  the  cold  season,  it  retires  into  holes,  to  hibernate. 
It  is  found  in  the  south  of  France ;  but  it  is  particularly  common 

20.  What  are  Pond  Tortoises?  How  are  they  distinguished  from  Land 
Tortoises  ? 

91.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Pond  Tortoises?  Where  are  they 
found  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Cistude  ? 


SOFT-SHELLED  TORTOISES. 35 

in  Greece  and  Italy.     Its  flesh  is  used  as  food,  and  it   is  reared 
lor  that  purpose,  with  bread,  young  vegetables,  &c. 

23.  Some  fresh  water  Tortoises  have   the  sternal   plastrum 
divided  into  two  flaps,  which  they  can  at  will,  by  a  moveable 
articulation,  close  against  the  carapax,  when  their  head  and  ex- 
tremities are  drawn  in,  so  as  to  inclose  themselves  in  a  box ;  this 
peculiarity  has  obtained  for  them  the  name  of  Box-tortoises. 

24.  There  are  some  fresh  water  Tortoises,  on   the   contrary, 
that  cannot  enclose  themselves  within  the  shell.     Amongst  these 
is  the  Snapper, —  Testudo  serpentinn, — which  is  readily  distin- 
guished by  its  long  tail,  which  is  studded  with  sharp   crests.     It 
is  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  United  States. 

25.  The  FAMILY  OF  RIVER  TORTOISES,  (  or  Soft-Shelled  Tor- 
toises,)—  Trioityx,—  differ  from  all  the  preceding  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  their  paws,  which  are  designed  for  swimming,   but  are 
entirely  unsuited  for  walking.  The  paws  are  very  much  depressed, 
and  the  toes,  although  very  distinct,  and  more  or  less  moveable, 
are  joined  as  far  as  the  nails  by  broad  flexible  membranes.    The 
carapax  is  very  much  spread  out,  and  almost  flat,  unprovided  with 
scales,  covered  only  by  a  skin  which  is  soft,  and  entirely  cartila- 
ginous throughout  its  border,  which  structure  has  obtained  for 
them  the  name  of  Soft-shelled  Tortoises ;  the  neck  is  generally 
elongated  and  protractile ;  the  nostrils  are  prolonged  into  a  sort 
of  little  trunk  ;  the  jaws  are  trenchant,  and  furnished  with  a  fold 
of  skin,  which  resembles  lips;  the  limbs  are  short,  and  supplied 
with  only  three  toes.     To  these  external  characters    are  added 
other  anatomical  peculiarities ;  for  example,  the  carapax  has  no 
marginal  pieces,  and  the  sternal  plastrurn  is  not  ossified  in   the 
middle. 

26.  These   animals   are  essentially  aquatic,  and  inhabit    the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  the  warmest  regions  of  the  globe:  they  swim 
with  great  ease,  and  remain  on  land  only  at  night ;  they  are  very 
voracious,  and  feed  chiefly  on  reptiles  and  fishes. 

27.  The  Nile  supports  one  species  of  these  Tortoises,  which 
is  useful  to  Egypt  by  devouring  a  great  number  of  young  croco- 
diles the  moment  they  are  hatched  ;  it  is  the   Tyrse, —  Trionyx 
teyyptiacus, — of  Zoologists.     Another  species,  which  inhabits  the 
rivers  of  South  America,  is  remarkable  for  its  ferocity,  and    for 
the  delicacy  of  its  flesh. 

23.  What  are  Box -Tortoises  ? 

24.  What  is  (he  Snapper? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Soft-Shelled  Tortoises  ? 

26.  What  are  their  habits? 

27.  What  is  the  Tyrse? 


36 


SEA  TORTOISES. 


Fig.  8. 


fc8.  The  FAMILY  OF  SEA  TORTOISES, — (Turtle)—  Chehmia.-~ 
The  Tortoises  that  live  in  the  sea,  differ  from  all  others,  both  in 
their  conformation  and  habits.  Their  flattened  paws,  which  are 

really  paddles,  are  only  suited  for 
swimming,  and  their  toes,  which 
are  closely  pressed  together,  and 
enveloped  in  the  same  membrane, 
are  entirely  immoveable.  Only  the 
two  first  toes  of  each  foot  have 
nails,  and  these  fall  off  at  a  certain 
time ;  and  the  anterior  extremities, 
in  place  of  being  of  nearly  the  same 
length  as  the  posterior,  are  more 
than  twice  as  long.  The  carapax 
is  arched  and  cordiform ;  and  near 
the  edge  of  this  shell,  the  ribs  are 
not  widened  and  soldered  together, 
and,  as  in  the  preceding  family,  the 
frame  open  in  the  centre.  The 


sternum  is  in  the  form  of  a 
nostrils  are  not  prolonged  into  a  trunk,  but  are  surmounted  by 
a  fleshy  mass,  which  acts  like  a  valve,  in  closing  these  openings 
when  the  animal  puts  its  head  under  water.  The  edges  of  the 
beak  are  very  trenchant,  and  the  upper  mandible  is  hooked. 

29.  These  tortoises  feed  principally  on  marine  plants,  and  only 
leave  the  water  in  the  laying  season :  they  swim  with  great 
facility,  and  they  are  sometimes  met  several  hundred  leagues  from 
land,  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea :  they  appear  to  be  able  to 
sleep  in  this  way,  and  they  also  dive  very  well.  At  the  laying 
season,  they  leave  their  habitual  haunts  and  resort  to  the  shores 
of  some  desert  island,  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  holes  which  they 
dig  upon  the  beach.  During  the  night  the  females  leave  the  water 
for  the  purpose  of  laying;  they  drag  themselves  on  the  beach 
beyond  the  line  of  high  tide,  and  with  their  anterior  extremities 
excavate  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep  in  which  they  deposit  their 
eggs  in  regular  ranges,  and  cover  them  with  sand,  which  they 
level  off  so  carefully  as  to  leave  scarcely  a  trace  of  their  labour. 
The  operation  over,  they  return  immediately  to  the  sea.  The 
number  of  eggs  is  very  considerable;  sometimes  as  many  as  two 
hundred,  and  the  laying  is  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  year. 
After  exposure  to  the  sun  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  they  burst, 
and  the  young,  which  are  not  yet  provided  with  shell,  imme- 
diately make  for  the  sea.  Generally,  they  find  difficulty  at  first 


28.  What  are  the  characters  of  Sea  Tortoises  » 
2U    What  are  their  habits  » 


MARINE  TORTOISES.  37 


in  plunging  into  it,  and,  before  reaching  it,  they  often  become  the 
prey  of  carnivorous  birds,  which  seem  to  await  the  moment  ol 
their  birth  to  feast  upon  them.  They  have  also  to  dread  vora- 
cious fishes  and  crocodiles,  which  assemble  in  the  same  places  for 
the  same  purposes ;  the  most  part  of  those  which  escape  their 
numerous  enemies,  acquire  very  considerable  dimensions:  they 
have  been  known  to  measure  fifteen  feet  in  circumference,  and  to 
weigh  from  five  to  six  hundred  pounds. 

30.  Marine  tortoises  are  found  in  all  warm  seas;  they  abound 
about  the  West  Indies,  and  particularly  about  a  small  archipelago 
near  the  main,  known  under  the  name  of  Tortugaa. 

31.  Among  these  Tortoises,  we  distinguish  the  CHELONIA,  in 
which  the  carapax  is  covered  with  horny  plates  or  scales,  and  the 
SPHARGIS,  which  have  only  a  coriaceous  skin.    The  most  common 
species   of  the    first   of  these  genera,  are  the  Green   Tortoise, 
(Turtle);  the  Caret,  or  Hawks-bill  Turtle;  and  the  Caouane.  Only 
one  species  of  Sphargis  is  known,  the  Lulh. 

32.  The  Green   Tortoise, —  Testudo  viridis, — is    recognised 
by  the  plates,  thirteen  in   number,  and  not  arranged  like  tiles, 
that   cover  the    disk   of   the  carapax,   which   is   fawn    colour, 
with  a  number  of  brown  spots,  glazed  green.     It  is  found  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  a  plant  known  to  botanists 
under  the  name  of  zostera  marina  :  it  lays  twice  a  year,  about  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  and  the  total  number   of  its   eggs   is 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty.     Its  length  is  sometimes  from  six 
to  seven  feet,  and  its  weight  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  pounds. 
This  species  differs  very   little   from  other   marine   Tortoises, 
frequenting  the  same  places,  and  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
and  in  the  Asiatic  seas.     The  flesh  of  all  these  Chelonians  is  very 
much  esteemed.     In  England  particularly  it  is  very  much  sought 
as  a  luxurious  disji,  and  to  supply  the  London  market,   vessels 
are  despatched  to  the  Indian  seas,  and  on  certain   coasts  parks 
have  been  established  for  the  preservation  of  Sea  Tortoises.  The 
fat  of  these  animals,  although  of  a  greenish  hue,  which  may  be 
at  first  unpleasant,  has  a  very  delicate  taste,  and  their  eggs  are 
equally  esteemed. 

33.  The  Caoiiaue,—  Testudo  carefta,—as  in  the  Green  Tortoise, 
the  carapax  is  covered  by  plates  simply  placed  together,  but  the 
number  of  these  scales  on  the  disk  is  fifteen  instead  of  thirteen. 

30.  WVere  are  marine  Tortoises  found  ? 

31.  How  arc  S  a  TorloiM-s  classified  ? 

32.  What  are  the  characters  of  Green  Tortoises  ?     Upon    what   do  ther 
feed  ? 

33.  What  is  the  Caouane? 

3 


38 


MARINE  TORTOISES. 


The  head  is  also  larger,  and  its  colour  is  brown  or  deep  chestnut 
It  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  it 
does  not  attain  the  same  size  as  the  preceding.  Its  length  is  about 
(our  feet,  and  its  weight  from  three  to  four  hundred  pounds.  It 
is  very  voracious  ;  its  food  consists  chiefly  of  mollusks,  and  its 
flesh  is  not  good.  Its  fat  is  burned  for  light. 

Fig.  9.  34.  The  Hawks-bill  Turtle— (the 

Caret) —  Tesmdo  imbricata, — (Fig. 
9.)  is  the  most  interesting  species 
of  this  genus ;  because  it  furnishes 
the  tortoise  shell.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  arrangement  of 
the  horny  plates  of  its  carapax, 
which,  in  place  of  being  simply 
joined  together,  are  extended  back- 
wards,  one  over  the  other  like  the 
tiles  or  shingles  of  a  roof;  we  count 
fifteen  on  the  disk;  the  colour  is  yel- 
lowish marble  with  a  deep  brown. 
The  jaws  are  strong,  elongated  and 
curved  towards  the  extremity,  but 
without  teeth  on  the  edges ;  the  ex- 
tremities or  fins,  like  those  of  the  caouane,  are  provided  with  two 
nails,  while  in  the  Green  Tortoise  there  is  but  one.  Its  size 
scarcely  exceeds  one  third  of  that  of  the  last  named  Chelonian  ;  it 
feeds  chiefly  on  marine  plants,  but  also  eats  Crustacea,  mollusca, 
and  small  fishes.  It  is  met  in  the  Indian  ocean  as  well  as  in  the 
American  seas,  and,  in  the  laying  season,  resorts  to  the  same 
localities  as  the  preceding  species.  At  the  Tortugas,  for  example, 
it  arrives  in  June,  and  lays  a  second  time  in  August.  The  total 
number  of  its  eggs  is  about  two  hundred  :  they  are  said  to  be 
good  food ;  but  the  flesh  of  this  Tortoise  is  bad,  and  it  is  only  on 
account  of  its  shell  that  it  is  sought. 

35.  The  scale  or  shell  which  covers  the  carapax  of  the  Hawks- 
bill  is  a  substance  which  is  extremely  analogous  to  horn,  but 
which  is  neither  fibrous  nor  lamellar  like  it ;  it  is  as  transparent ; 
its  hardness  is  greater,  arid  it  is  capable  of  receiving  and  preser- 
ving the  most  beautiful  polish ;  and  it  is  very  much  esteemed  in 
the  manufacture  of  toys,  &c.  Each  one  of  these  Tortoises  fur- 
nishes, on  an  average,  from  three  to  four  pounds  of  these  large 
scales,  and  to  detach  them,  it  is  only  necessary  to  expose  the 
carapax  before  burning  coals.  It  is  brought  to  market  without 

34.  Wh;it  is  the  Hawks-bill  Turtle?     For  what  is  it  most  valued? 

35.  What  is  Tortoise  shell  ?     How  is  it  obtained  ' 


SAURIANS.  39 


any  other  preparation,  and  is  known  as  rough  tortoise  shall,  which 
is  afterwards  manufactured  in  the  same  manner  as  horn.  Bv 
softening  it  by  the  action  of  hot  water,  and  afterwards  pressing, 
it  can  be  spread  out,  soldered  or  moulded  into  any  required  shape. 
What  is  termed  rw/j,  or  cast  shell,  is  obtained  by  agglutinating, 
by  a  similar  process,  the  scrapings  and  powder,  detached  from  the 
ordinary  shell,  in  fashioning,  or  giving  it  the  desired  dimensions. 
36.  The  marine  Tortoises,  designated  under  the  name  ot' 
SPHARGIS,  have  no  covering  composed  of  horny  plates,  but  one 
of  a  coriaceous  skin,  similar  to  leather.  Only  one  species  is 
known,  the  Luth,  which  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Atlantic ;  it  attains  seven  or  eight  feet  in  length. 


LESSON    III. 

ORDER    OF    SAURIA. — Organization. — Classification. 
FAMILY  OF  CROCODILIDA.  —  Circulation.  —  Habits.  —  Crocodiles 

properly  so  called. — Alligators. 

FAMILY  OP  LACERTINIOA. — Characters.  —  Monitors. — Lizards. 
FAMILY  OP  IGUANIDA.  —  Characters.  —  Dragons.  —  Iguanas.  — 

Uasilisks. 

FAMILY  OF  GECKOTIDA. — Characters. — Habits. 
FAMILY  OP  CHAMJELEONIDA.  —  Characters — Common  Chameleon. 
FAMILY  OF  SCINCOIDEA — Characters — Scinques  —  Fossil  Saurians. 

ORDER   OP   OPHIDIA,  or  Serpents.—  Characters. 

FAMILY  OF  ANGUINA  — Characters. 

FAMILY  OF  SERPENTIA,  ^or  True  Serpents. — Coluber. —  Boa. — 
Venomous  Serpents.  —  Rattle  Snake.  —  Trigonocephalus.  — 
Vipers. — Naia,  or  Asps. — Effects  and  treatment  of  the  bites 
of  Vipers,  fyc. 

FAMILY  OF  NUDA. — Characters. 


ORDER    OF    SAURIANS. 

1.  The  order  of  Sauria  comprises  all  reptiles  that  resemble 
lizards  in  their  general  conformation.  Animals  of  this  order 
always  have  an  elongated  body,  terminated  by  a  tail  of  greater 
or  less  length,  and  provided  with  extremities,  which,  with  some 
exceptions,  are  four  in  number. 

36.  Flow  are  the  Tortoises  of  the  gmus  Sphnrois  characterised? 
1.  What  is  the    general  character  of  animali  included    in    the  order  of 
BaorUI 


40 ORGANIZATION  OF  SAURIANS. 

2.  Their  extremities  are  short,  and  placed    unfavourably   for 
rapid  movement.     In  general,  they  are  wide  apart,  and  directed 
outwards  at  a  right  angle  with  the  body,  so  that  they    cannot 

•sustain  the  weight  of  the  trunk :  most  of  these  reptiles  drag  the 
belly  and  tail  on  the  ground.  The  toes,  which  are  very  distinct, 
and  ordinarily  five  in  number,  terminate  in  sharp,  curved  nails  ; 
sometimes  they  are  very  long  and  slender,  at  others,  widened, 
and  furnished  beneath  with  folds  variously  arranged,  and  at  other 
times  again,  united  by  palmate  membranes,  which  modifications 
are  in  conformity  with  the  animal's  mode  of  life. 

3.  The  skeleton  has  no  important  remarkable  peculiarity.  The 
number  of  vertebrae  is  very  variable,  particularly  in  the   caudal 
region  :  there  always  exist  moveable  ribs  which  often  protect  the 
abdomen  as  well  as  the  thorax.     The  sternum  is  never  wanting. 
The  shoulder  is  ordinarily  formed  of  three  bones,  (a  scapula,  a 
clavicle,  and  a  coracoid  bone,)  united  in  a  kind  of  ring,  so  as  to 
envelope  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest,  and  all  concur  in  the 
formation  of  the  cavity  designed  to  lodge  the  head  of  the  humerus. 
The  pelvis  is  also  composed  of  three  pieces,  and  is  joined  to  the 
sacrum,  which  consists  of  two  vertebrae. 

4.  The  skin  of  these  animals  is  always  covered  by  a  thick  and 
unequal  epidermic  layer,  which  forms  scales  or  plates  of  greater 
or  less  size. 

5.  The  mouth,  which  is  deeply  cleft,  is  without  fleshy  lips ;  it 
is  armed  with  teeth,  generally  of  a  conical  form,  that  serve   to 
seize  and  hold  their  prey,  but  rarely  to  grind  their   food.     They 
are  often  found  in  the  palate,  as  well  as  in  the  two  jaws.     The 
food  of  Saurians  consists   essentially  of  animal  substances ;  the 
digestive  canal  is  ordinarily  quite  short ;  in  general,  the  stomach 
is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  oesophagus ;  but  sometimes 
it  has  the  form  of  a  more  or  less  globular  pouch. 

6.  The  disposition  of  the  circulatory  system,  varies  in   these 
animals ;  in  general,  the  heart  is  but  imperfectly  divided  in   its 
ventricular  portion,  so  that  the  venous   blood  and  arterial  blood 
mingle  in  its  interior;  but  in  crocodiles,  the  separation  between 
the  two  halves  of  this  organ  is  complete,  and  the  mixture  of  the 
two  kinds  of  blood  takes  place  only  in  the  descending  aorta. 

7.  The   lungs,  in  general,  are  large,  and  extend  more  or  less 
into  the  abdomen.     The  air  is  renewed  in    them   by   the   same 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  their  extremities? 

3.  What  is  nmarkablc  in  the  skeleton  of  Sauria? 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skin  of  Sunria  ? 

5.  What  is  the  character  and  situation  of  thr  teeth  in  Siuria  ? 

6.  Is  the  circulation  of  the  blood  the  same  in  all  Sauria?     What   are   ita 
general  characters  ? 

7.  How  do  the  Saurian'*,  breathe  ? 


DIVISION  OF  SAURIANS. 41 

mechanism  as  in  mammals  and  birds,  that  is,  by  the  alternate 
dilatation  and  contraction  of  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  effected  by 
the  action  of  the  ribs. 

8.  The  order  of  Saurians  may  be  divided  into  six  families, 
namely :  Crocodilians^  Lacertiuns,  Chumcleonians^  lguanians% 
d'rckotians,  and  Scincoidians,  which  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  following  characters: 

SAURIANS, 


f    . 


jrjl 


en 

l\ 

ro   _» 


ir 


r* 


Certain  fossil  reptiles,  which  cannot  be  classed  in  any  one  of 
the  above  families,  are  also  referred  to  this  order :  some  of  them 
were  formed  for  swimming  exclusively,  and  others  for  flight. 

8.  What  is  the  division  of  the  order  of  Sauria  / 
3* 


CROCODILES. 


FAMILY  OF  CROCODILIANS. 

9.  Crocodiles  differ  in  so  many  respects  from  other   Saurians 
that  many  authors  think  they  ought  to    constitute  a  separate 

10  order.      Their  internal 

organization  seems  to 
place  them  as  a  con- 
necting link  between 
reptiles  and  the  higher 
vertebrata.  They  are 
very  easily  recognised 
by  their  laterally  com- 
CROCODILE  OF  THE  NILE.  pressed  tail,  and  by  their 

toes,  five  before,  and  four  behind,  all  of  them  more  or  less  united 
by  membranes,  which  is  indicative  of  aquatic  habits. 

10.  The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  these 
animals,  is  the  disposition  of  their  circulatory  system  :  it  is  such 
that  the  whole  posterior  part  of  the  body  receives  only  a  mixture 
of  arterial  and  venous  blood,  while  the  head  is  supplied  with  pure 
arterial   blood.     The  heart  has  four  cavities,  two  auricles,  and 
two  distinct  ventricles,  as  in  mammals  and  birds.     The  arterial 

blood,  coming  from  the  lungs,  passes 
from  the  left  auricle  into  the  ventricle 
of  the  same  side,  which  in  its  turn,  sends 
the  blood  into  the  aorta,  (Fig.  1 1.)  The 
ap  venous  blood,  received  into  the  right  ven- 
tricle, finds  no  direct  passage  into  the 
left  ventricle,  as  is  the  case  in  other  rep- 
tiles ;  but  it  does  not  all  go  to  the  lungs, 
as  it  does  in  the  warm-blooded  verte- 
brata ;  for,  alongside  of  the  pulmonary 
arteries,  (ap.}  is  found  another  vessel, 
(a.)  which  also  arises  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle, and  which,  after  bending  back- 
wards  behind  the  heart,  terminates  in  the 

Explanation  of  Fig.  11.— Heart  and  great  vessels  of  a  crocodile: — 
o,  »,  veins  which  bring  the  blood  from  different  parts  of  the  body  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart,  (orf,) — vt,  the  two  ventricles  which  are  separated  inter- 
nally by  a  paitition, — ap,  the  two  pulmonary  arteries  which  go  from  the 
right  ventricle  to  the  lungs, — a,  the  vessel  which  arises  from  the  same  ven- 
tricle, and  empties  into  the  descending  aorta, — vp,  pulmonary  veins  which 
convey  the  arterial  blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle,  (og,}  from  which 
it  descends  into  the  left  ventricle,  and  directly  enters  the  aorta,  (ao,)  and  tho 
two  arteries,  (c,  c,)  which  are  distributed  to  the  head,  &c. 

9.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  crocodiles  ? 
10.  What  are  the  peculiarities  in  the  circulation  in  crocodiles  ? 


CROCODILES.  43 


descending  aorta,  (oo.)  It  follows,  therefore,  that  at  every  con- 
traction of  the  heart,  one  portion  of  venous  blood  is  sent  to  the 
lungs,  and  another  portion  is  mingled  with  the  arterial  blood  ; 
but  this  mixture  takes  place  in  the  interior  of  the  aorta,  below 
the  point  of  origin  of  those  branches,  (c,c.)  which  this  vessel 
sends  to  the  head  and  anterior  part  of  the  trunk,  so  that  these 
parts  receive  pure  arterial  blood,  while  all  those,  the  arteries  of 
which  arise  posteriorly  to  the  point  of  junction  between  the  aorta 
and  the  vessel  coming  from  the  right  ventricle,  receive  only  a 
mixture  of  red  and  black  blood. 

11.  The  lungs  of  Crocodiles  do  not  extend  into  the  abdomen, 
like  those  of  other  reptiles,  and  are  separated  from  its  viscera  by 
a  sort  of  imperfect  diaphragm.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that 
the  canal  through  which  the  air  penetrates  to  these  organs,  can 
*be  completely  separated  from  the  mouth  by  letting  down  a  fold, 
analogous  to  the  veil  of  the  palate  in  mammals,  an  arrangement, 
which  permits  them  to  remain  under  water,  with  the  mouth  open, 
to  await  their  prey,  without  interrupting  their  respiration.  And 
their  nostrils,  which  open  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  are 
closed  by  valves. 

12  Their  mouth  is  cleft  beyond  the  ears,  and  the  lo"wer  jaw  MS 
prolonged  backwards  beyond  the  cranium,  which  makes  the  upper 
one  seem  to  be  moveable  ;  bjut  it  only  moves  with  the  cranium. 
There  is,  in  each  jaw,  a  single  row  of  very  strong,  pointed  teeth, 
planted  in  distinct  alveoli.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  flat,  and  attached 
to  the  lower  jaw,  very  close  to  its  edges,  and  hardly  distinct  from 
it,  which  led  the  ancients  to  believe  that  it  was  entirely  wanting. 
The  stomach  is  in  the  form  of  a  rounded  pouch. 

13.  The  skeleton  also,  has  several  peculiarities.     The  cervical 
vertebraa  rest  one  on  the  other  through   the  medium  of  small 
false  ribs,   which  renders  lateral   motion  difficult.     Besides  the 
ordinary  ribs,  there  is  found,  between  the   muscles  of  the  abdo- 
men, analogous  bones,  which  protect  the  viscera  without  extend- 
ing to  the  dorsal  spine ;  these  reptiles  are  the  only  Saurians  that 
want  clavicles,  properly  so  called 

14.  Crocodiles  are  large  animals;  their  back  is  covered  by 
large,  square,  very  strong  scales  which  are  carenate  (ridged,)  in 
the  middle.     The  tail  has  a  similar  covering,  and  is  furnished   on 
Top  with  a  strongly  notched  crest  which  is  double  at  its  base ;  the 

1 1.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  respiratory  organ*  in  Crocodiles? 

12.  Do' Crocodiles  move  the  upper  jaw  ?  What  is  remarkable  in  the  lo^er 
jnw  ?     What  is  the  character  of  their  teeth  ?     Have   Crocodiles  a  tongue  J 
What  are  i's  peculiarities? 

13.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  ? 

14.  What  is  the  chaiacter  of  the  integuments  of  Crocodiles  ? 

2K 


44  CROCODILES. 


plates  on  the  belly  are  thin,  smooth,  and  square,  and  arranged  m 
transverse  bands. 

15.  These  large  and  powerful  animals  inhabit  the  hottest  parts 
of  both  continents,  and  ordinarily  keep  in  fresh  water  rivers  and 
lakes.  Their  gait  is  usually  slow  ;  though  they  can  swim  with  ex- 
treme rapidity,  and  run  very  swiftly  in  a  straight  line,  but,  owing 
to  the  disposition  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  it  is  difficult  for  them 
to  change  their  direction  :  hence,  it  is  easy  to  avoid  them  by  turn- 
ing or  running  around  them.  They  are  very  carnivorous,  and 
formidable  even  for  man.  They  cannot  swallow  in  the  water; 
but  they  generally  drag  their  prey  there  to  drown,  and,  it  is  said, 
they  deposit  it  in  some  hole  to  putrify  before  eating  it. 

J6.  These  animals,  notwithstanding,  they  are  so  formidable, 
and  so  well  furnished  with  protective  armour,  have  foes  to  dread, 
and  these  enemies  are  feeble  insects,  a  sort  of  ant,  which  intro«% 
duce  themselves  into  their  mouth,  in  immense  numbers,  the 
moment  they  go  on  shore,  and  torment  them  with  their  stings ; 
but,  what  is  very  singular,  little  birds  often  come  to  deliver  them 
from  this  scourge,  and  enter  their  great  mouth  without  fear,  in 
pursuit  of  the  insects.  This  fact,  observed  by  Herodotus,  and 
afterwards  treated  as  a  fable,  has  been  confirmed  in  modern  times, 
by  Geoffroy  Saint  Hilaire,  who  accompanied  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon in  Egypt.  A  species  of  Plover  performs  this  interesting 
service  for  the  crocodile  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
Tody  has  a  similar  habit. 

17.  The  family  of  crocodilida  is  composed  of  three  genera, 
namely :  Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  Caimans,  or  *fl.lliyatorst 
and  (jr  (trials'. 

simply  no'ched  on  ~] 

each  side  to  receive   [         CROCODILES 

the  fourth  t>oth  of  f  Properly  so  called. 


•B     f 

-   N       I 
1    3      I 


wide,  and  the 
whole  hend 
oblong ;  the 
upper  jaw 


the  lowet  jaw. 

with  a  hole  on  each 
side  to  receive  the 


CATMANS. 


fourth  tooth  of  the   j 
,  lower  jaw.  J 

6'£    I 

J|     ^  slender,  and  very  much  elongated,      ^          GAVIALS. 

18.  CROCODILES  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Crocodilus,  —  have  an 
oblong  and  depressed  muzzle,  unequal  teeth,  and  the  upper  jaw 

15.  What  regions  do  Crocodiles  inhabit? 

16.  What  are  the  great  enemies  of  Crocodiles  ? 

17.  What  genera  compose  the  family  of  Crocodilians  ? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Crocodiles   properly   so  called  ? 
Where  are  they  found  ?  What  are  their  habits? 


ALLIGATORS.  45 


notched  on  each  side  to  receive  the  fourth  lower  tooth,  when  the 
mouth  is  shut.  The  most  celebrated  and  longest  known  species, 
is  the  Crocodile  of  the  N  le^  an  animal  that  is  sometimes  twenty- 
five,  and  even  thirty  feet  in  length  :  it  is  bronze  green,  spotted 
and  marbled  with  brown  above,  yellowish  green  below,  and  is 
distinguished  by  the  square  plates  nearly  equal  in  size,  which 
form  six  rows  along  the  back.  We  find  from  Senegal  to  the 
Ganges,  and  even  beyond  it,  Crocodiles  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Nile,  which  seem  to  be  only  varieties  of  this  species.  Formerly 
this  reptile  descended  the  IVile  to  its  delta,  and  according  to  Pu.iy, 
passed  the  four  winter  months  there,  in  caverns  ;  but  in  our  time, 
it  never  quits  Upper  Egypt,  where  it  does  not  hibernate.  The 
Ancient  Egyptians,  particularly  the  inhabitants  of  Thebes,  and 
the  environs  of  the  lake  Moeris,  rendered  great  honours  to  these 
reptiles;  they  even  made  them  objects  of  religious  worship,  and 
embalmed  their  dead  bodies.  At  Arsinoe,  the  priests  raised  one 
of  these  reptiles,  which  they  kept  in  a  temple,  and  adorned  with 
jewels,  and  fed  with  great  care. 

19.  Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  also  exist  in  America:  the 
Caiman  of  Saint  Domingo,  and  other  parts  of  the  West   Indies, 
belongs  to  this  genus,  and  has  received  the  name  of  Crocodilns 
acutus,  or  sharp  nosed  Crocodile,  from  the  form  of  its  head :  it 
has  four  rows  of  plates  on  its  back,  and  its  length   sometimes 
exceeds  sixteen  feet.     It  is  a  fierce  and  dangerous  animal.     At 
birth,  the  young  are  from  nine  to  ten  inches  Jong,  and  growth 
continues  for  twenty  years. 

20.  The  CAIMANS,  or  ALLIGATORS,  are  readily  distinguished  from 
Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  by  the  disposition  of  the  fourth  tooth 
of  the  lower  jaw,  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  is  lodged  in 
a  hole,  and  not  in  a  notch  of  the  upper  jaw.     Their  hind  feet,  in 
place  of  being  notched  on  the  external  edge,  and  palmate  to  the 
end  of  the  toes,  are  unprovided  with  notches,  and  are  only  semi- 
palmate.     Many  species  are  known,  but  all  seem  to   belong   to 
America.     One  of  them,  the  Pike-nosed    Alligator, — Crocodilns 
Indus,  —  inhabits   the   southern    parts  of   North  America,  and, 
during  the  season  of  ice,  buries  itself  in  the  mud,  and    remains 
benumbed  until  the  return  of  a  milder  temperature.     In  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  there  is  another,  the  Spectacle  Alligator, — Crocodihis 
sc/erops, — so  called  from  the  ridge  which  unites  the   projecting 
edges  of  the  orbits  in  front.     Like  other  Crocodiles,  the  last  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  sand  ;  but  covers  them  with  straw  or  leaves,  arid 
instead  of  abandoning  them,  defends  them  courageously  ;  it  is 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  rarely  attacks  man. 

19.  Are  there  any  CmcoHili-s  in  America? 

20.  How  are  Alligators  distinguished  from  Crocodiles? 


46  MONITORS.-LIZARDS. 

21.  The  GA VIALS  differ  from  the  two  preceding    genera    in 
their  very  long  slender  muzzle,  as  well  as  in  their  teeth,  which 
are  nearly  equal.     They  are  only  met  with  on  the  eastern  con- 
tinent.    The   most   common  is   the    facial    of  the    Ganges, — 
Lacerta  ganyetica, — which  is  said  to  attain  thirty  feet  in  length, 
but  is  not  dangerous  either  to  man  or  large  animals  ;  it   feeds 
exclusively  on  fishes. 

FAMILY  OF  LACERTIANS. 

22.  The  Lacertians   have  five  distinct  toes  on  all  their  feet, 
armed  with  nails;  the  tongue  is  thin,  extensile  and  terminated  by 
two  threads  :  their  scales  are  arranged  in  transverse  and  parallel 
bands  around  the  tail,  and  under  the  belly,  some  have  teeth  in 
the  jaws  only,  and  others  have  them  also  in  the  palate.     The  first 
form  the  tribe  of  Monitors,  and  the  second  that  of  Lizards. 

23  The  MONITORS  generally  have  a  laterally  compressed  tail, 
like  that  of  the  Crocodile.  Monitors  properly  so  called  are 
recognised  by  the  small  scales  that  cover  the  head,  limbs  and 
whole  body.  Two  species  are  found  in  Egypt :  one,  the  Monitor 
of  the  A?/r, — Lacerta  mlvtica, — is  five  or  six  feet  long,  and  is 
seen  sculptured  on  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  Egyptians; 
the  other,  called  the  Land  Monitor  of  Eyypt>  on  account  of  its 
terrestrial  habits,  is  common  in  the  deserts,  in  the  vicinity  of  that 
country. 

24.  Other  Monitors,  called  Sauvegardes,  have  the  top   of  the 
head  furnished  with  angular  plates ;  and  the  belly  and  tail  are 
covered  with  large  rectangular  scales. 

25.  The  TRIBE  OF  LIZARDS,  is  composed  of  Lizards   properly 
so  called,  and  some  similar  genera,  in  which  the  palate  is  armed 
with  two  rows  of  teeth,  and  the  tail  is  cylindrical.    Most  of  them 
are  also  distinguished  by  a  sort  of  collar,  placed  under  the  neck 
and  formed  of  a  transverse  range  of  large  scales,  separated  from 
those  of  the  chest,  by  a  space  covered  only  by  granulations.    In 
general,  they  have  also,  under  each  thigh,  a  longitudinal  series  of 
projecting  pores,  and  the  whole  top  of  the  head  is  armed  with  a 
bony  shield,  which  is  covered  by  large  horny  plates. 

26.  LIZARDS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Lacertu, — have  the  top  of 
the  body  covered  by  small  scales  similar  to   granulations,  while 
beneath  the  belly  they   have   large   transverse    plates.     These 

21.  How  do  Gavials  differ  from  other  Crocodiles  ? 

22.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Lacertians? 

23.  flow  are  Monitors  recognised  ? 

24.  What  are  Sauvegardes? 

25.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Lizards  ? 

26.  How  are  Lizards  properly  so  called  characterised  ?     What    are   their 
habits?     Upon  what  do  they  feed?     Are  they  poisonous? 


IGUAN1ANS.  47 


animals  are  agile,  light,  and  elegant  in  form  ;  they  feed  princi- 
pally on  insects,  and  prefer  living  prey.  In  summer  they  eat  a 
great  deal ;  but  they  can  easily  support  a  fast  of  several  weeks 
in  summer,  and  four  or  five  months  in  winter;  when  held  in  cap- 
tivity, they  generally  refuse  to  take  food;  yet  they  bite  at  every 
thing  presented  to  them,  and  close  their  jaws  with  considerable 
force.  In  our  climate  they  pass  the  winter  benumbed  in  holes, 
and  their  movements  are  active  in  proportion  as  the  temperature 
is  more  elevated  ;  they  Jove  to  warm  themselves  in  the  sun  even 
in  midsummer,  and  they  are  often  seen  stretched  on  a  stone  bask- 
ing in  the  sunshine.  Many  fables  have  been  attached  to  these 
animals  ;  some  have  pretended,  without  any  reason,  that  they  are 
venomous ;  others,  without  foundation,  assert  that  they  show  a 
true  attachment  for  man,  and  give  him  warning  when  a  serpent 
is  about  to  bite.  A  great  many  species  are  known. 

FAMILY  OF  IGUANIANS. 

27.  The  Saurians  composing  this  family  have  very  nearly  the 
same  general  form  as  the  Lacertians:  they  also  have  a  long  tail, 
free  and  unequal  toes,  &c.;  but  their  tongue  is  fleshy,  thick,  not 
extensile,  and  only  notched  at  the  end. 

28.  The  mouth  presents  the  same  modifications  as  the  pre- 
ceding family :  sometimes  they  have  teeth  in  the  palate  as   well 
as  in  both  jaws ;  sometimes  there  are  only  two  ranges  of  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw. 

29.  Among  the  first  are  ranged  the  STELLIOS;  they  have  the 
tail  surrounded   by  large  scales,  which    are   often   spiny;    the 
AGAMIANS,  in  which  the  scales  on  the  tail  are  imbricate,  (that   is, 
having  the  scales  lying  over  each  other  like  shingles  on  a  roof,) 
and  not  iwtiuittute,  (that  is,  not  arranged  in  a  circle,  around  a 
centre) ;  the  DRAGONS,  &c      The  last  are  distinguished   from    all 
other  reptiles  by  a  species  of  wing  formed  on  each  side  by  a  deep 
fold  of  the  skin.     These  appendices  resemble  the  wings  of  a  bat ; 
but  instead  of  being  supported  and  set  in  motion  by  the  extremi- 
ties, they  are  altogether  independent  of  them,  and  are  sustained 
by  the  first  six  false  ribs  which  do  not  surround  the  abdomen, 
but  are  extended   horizontally  in  a  straight  line.     The  animal 
uses  these  wings  as  a  parachute,  to  sustain  itself  in  the  air  when 
it  leaps  from  branch  to  branch  ;  but  it   cannot  use   them   with 
sufficient  force  to  fly  like  a  bat  or  a  bird.    These  singular  reptiles, 

27.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Iguanians? 
28    What  are  the  modifications  met  with  in  the  mouth  ? 
2:>.  What  are  Stellios  ?     What  are  Agamians  ?     How   are    ihe   Dragons 
characterised  ? 

2K» 


18 IGUANAS.^BASILISKS.-ANOLIS. 

which  inhabit  India,  realize  to  a  certain  extent  the  fable  of  flying 
lizards,  or  serpents,  spoken  of  by  certain  ancient   writers ;  but 

Fiy.  12. 


the  Dragons  of  zoologists,  instead  of  being  formidable  animals, 
'ike  those  of  the  poets,  are  of  very  small  size,  and  only  attack 
insects. 

30.  As  examples  of  Iguanians   with  palatine  teeth,   we   will 
mention,  IGUANAS  PROPERLY  so   CALLED,    BASILISKS,  and  ANOLIS. 
The  first  are  covered  by  small  imbricated  scales,  and  have  a 
crest  of  pointed  scales  along  the  back.     There  is  also  observed 
beneath  the  throat,  a  pendent  and  compressed  dew-lap.     Several 
species  are  known  which  inhabit  America  ;  one,  four  or  five  feet 
in  length,  is  common  in  all  the  hot  regions  of  the  New   World  : 
it  lives  mostly  on  trees  and  feeds  on  fruits,  leaves,  &c.     Its  flesh 
is  reputed  delicate,  but  unwholesome. 

31.  The  BASILISKS, — Busiliscvs, — have   along   the  back   and 
tail,   a  continued,   elevated   crest,  which  is  supported    by   the 
spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae ;    they  feed  on  grains,  and 
inhabit  Guiana. 

32.  The  ANOLIS, — Jinnlius, —  which  also  belong  to  America, 
are  distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  their  toes,  the  antepe- 
nultimate joint  of  which  is  furnished  on  the  under  part,   with  an 
oval,    striated   disk,  by   the  assistance  of  which  these  reptiles 
cling  to  the  surface  upon  which  they  climb.     Many  of  them  pos- 
sess the  power  of  changing  the  colour  of  their  skin. 

To  the  family  of  Iguanas  also  belongs  an  enormous  reptile, 
called  Mosasaurus,  the  fossil  bones  of  which  have  been  found  at 
Maestricht. 

30.  What  are  Iguanas  properly  so  called  ?     What  are  their  habits? 

31.  What  are  Basilisks? 

32.  How  are  the  Anohs  characterised  ? 


GECKOS  —CHAMELEONS 49 

FAMILY  OF  GECKO  HANS. 

33.  The  Saurians   designated  under  the   collective  name   of 
(reckon,  are  nocturnal  animals,  dull  and  heavy  in  appearance ; 
their  walk  is  crawling,  and  their  squat  and  flattened  form  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  that  of  most  of  the  reptiles  we  have  here- 
.ofore  mentioned.     Their  head  is  wide  and  depressed  ;  their  eyes 
are  very  large,  and  very  prominent ;  their  jaws  are  armed  all 
round  with  a  single  row  of  small  teeth  ;  but  there  are  none  in  the 
palate.     Their  tongue  is  fleshy,  and  not  extensile;  the  body  is 
studded  above  by  small  granular  scales,  among  which  are  larger 
tubercles,  (the  whole  resembling  shagreen,)  and  covered  beneath 
by  flat,  imbricated  scales ;  their  feet  are  moderate  in  size,  and  their 
five,  almost  equal  toes,  are  ordinarily  widened  throughout,  or  in 
part,  armed  with  retractile  nails,  and  furnished  beneath  with  a  fold 
of  skin,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  adhere  to  bodies  upon  which  they 
walk.     This  conformation  of  the  toes  enables  them  to  walk  easily 
on  the  smoothest  walls,  and  even  upon  ceilings.     During  the  day, 
they  conceal  themselves  in  obscure  places,  and,  at  night,  more 
especially,  they  seek  spiders,  and  other  animals  upon  which  they 
feed.     The  ugliness  of  these  reptiles   is  extreme,   and   we   are 
assured,  that  the  contact  of  their  feet  on  our  skin,  often  excites 
a  sort  of  inflammation  :  they  are  everywhere  objects  of  aversion, 
and  they  are  charged  with  being  venomous,   but  this  opinion  is 
not  sustained  by  positive  proof. 

The  Geckos  are  very  numerous,  and  disseminated  throughout 
the  warm  parts  of  both  continents. 

FAMILY  OF  CHAMELEONS. 

34.  The  Chameleons, —  Cftamaleo,  —  are    Fig.13. 
distinguished  from  all  other  Saurians  by  their 

toes,  which  are  five  in  number  on  all  their  feet, 
but  divided  into  two  opposable  parcels  or  bun- 
dles, an  arrangement  which  makes  these  ani- 
mals essentially  climbers,  destined  to  live  on 
\he  branches  of  trees,  (/'u/.  13.)  A  number 
>f  peculiarities  of  organization  separates  them 
from  all  the  reptiles  we  have  thus  far  con- 
sidered. Their  tail,  round  and  prehensile, 
serves  them  as  a  fifth  extremity,  in  suspend- 
ing themselves  from  branches,  and  aids  them 
in  their  slow  and  awkward  movements.  Their 

33.  What  are  Geckos  ?     What  arc  their  general  characters? 

34.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Chameleons  ?     Upon  what 
do  they  feed  ?     How  does  the  Chameleon  change  its  colour  ?     What  are  the 
pecu'iarities  of  the  skin  in  Chameleons  ? 


50  CHAMELEONS. 


eyes,  which  are  very  large  and  very  projecting,  are  almost  entirely 
covered  by  the  skin ;  the  light  reaches  them  only  through  a  little 
hole,  situate  opposite  to  the  pupil,  and  these  organs  move  alto- 
gether independently  of  each  other.  Their  mouth  is  armed  with 
srt. all  tri-lobed  teeth,  and  their  tongue,  fleshy  and  cylindrical,  is 
extremely  extensile :  they  can  dart  it  out  of  the  mouth  to  a  dis- 
tance that  sometimes  exceeds  the  length  of  the  body,  and  they 
use  it  to  seize  living  insects  upon  which  they  feed.  Their  body 
is  compressed,  and  the  back  is  ridged,  or,  as  it  were,  trenchant, 
and  the  skin  is  covered  by  small  scaly  granulations.  These 
singular  animals  are  celebrated  for  their  faculty  of  almost  instantly 
changing  colour;  and,  if  we  believe  the  ancient  writers,  they  even 
possess  the  power  of  assuming  successively,  the  hues  of  all  the 
objects  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  in  order  to  conceal  them- 
selves more  effectually  from  their  enemies.  The  observations  of 
naturalists  have  already  robbed  the  history  of  the  Chameleon  of 
the  fables  with  which  it  was  loaded ;  and,  although  the  faculty  of 
changing  its  colours,  in  this  manner,  has  been  denied,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  it  really  undergoes  the  most  remarkable  changes, 
being  sometimes  almost  white,  sometimes  yellowish,  at  other 
times  green,  reddish,  and  even  almost  black,  either  entirely  or 
only  on  parts  of  the  body.  These  changes  are  particularly 
observed,  when  the  animal  is  excited  either  by  anger  or  by 
heat.  When  it  has  remained  lor  some  time  in  a  dark,  cold 
place,  it  is  almost  white,  and  warming  it,  or  stimulating  it, 
causes  it  to  assume  a  bottle  green,  or  vinous  red  hue,  which 
often  becomes  so  intense  that  it  appears  to  be  almost  black. 
For  a  long  time,  these  changes  were  attributed  to  the  greater 
or  less  distension  of  the  very  large  lungs  of  this  animal,  and 
to  corresponding  modifications  in  the  quantity  of  blood  sent 
to  the  skin  ;  but  we  are  assured,  there  is  no  necessary  relation 
between  these  phenomena  ;  and  dissection  of  the  skin  teaches  us 
that  we  rmist  seek  the  cause  of  these  variations  of  colour  in  the 
particular  mode  of  the  structure  of  this  membrane.  We  find,  in 
tact,  that  it  contains  different  colouring  matters,  some  of  which 
can  sometimes  rise  to  the  surface,  and  in  a  degree  mask  the 
others,  and  at  other  times  retire,  and  become  hidden  beneath  th;. 
superficial  pigment. 

35.  Only  a  single  genus  of  Saurians,  possessing  the  abv/e 
described  organization,  is  known  ;  but  many  species  of  Clw,ie- 
leons  have  been  ascertained.  One  of  them,  very  common  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers,  is  met  with  from  Spain  to  the 
Indies. 

N5.  How  many  genera  of  Chameleons  are  known? 


SCINCOTDS.  51 


FAMILY  OF  SCINCOIDEA. 

36.  The  Saurians  which  compose  this  family  are   recognisec. 
by  their  short  feet,  their  tongue,  which  is  slightly  or  not  at  all 
extensible,  and  by  the  equal,  and  ordinarily  im- 
bricated scales,  which  cover  the  body  above  and 

below.  Some  of  them  are  spindle-shaped,  and 
others  have  the  body  so  much  elongated,  and  the 
tail  not  very  distinguishable  from  it,  (Fig.  14.) 
that  they  resemble  serpents.  In  many,  the  feet 
are  too  short  to  serve  for  locomotion,  and  there 
are  some  in  which  one  pair  of  extremities,  either 
the  anterior  or  posterior,  is  entirely  wanting. 
The  Scincoidea  evidently  form  the  connecting 
link  between  the  Saurians  and  Ophidians. 

37.  Among   the    Scincoidea     we    place    the 
SCINQUES,  the  SEPS,  the  BIPEDES,  the  CHALCIDES, 
and  the  BIMANA      In  the  two  first  genera  there 
are  four  feet,  and  in  the  Seps  the  body  is  more 
elongated,   and  more    vermiform    than   in    the 
Scinques.     The   Bipedes,  (Fig.  14  )   and    Chal- 
cides,    want   the  anterior   extremities,  and   the 
Bimana  have  the  fore  feet  only. 

38.  Long  previous  to  the  epoch  of  the  crea- 
tion of  man,  there  existed  on  the  surface  of  the 

globe,  a  great  number  of  gigantic  reptiles,  the  bones  of  which 
are  found  in  a  fossil  state.  Among  these  Saurians,  the  race  of 
which  is  extinct,  are  found  Lacertians,  resembling  Monitors,  that 
must  have  been  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  length  ;  but  many  of 
these  lost  animals  are  particularly  remarkable  for  their  anomalous 
structure.  In  England,  near  Honfleur,  and  in  other  localities, 
we  find  in  the  very  ancient  formations,  the  remains  of  many 
species  of  two  genera  of  Saurians,  whose  broad  feet,  in  the  form 
of  battledores,  indicate  that  these  animals  were  entirely  aquatic. 
They  are  designated  under  the  names  of  PLESIAOSURUS,  and 
ICTHYOSAURUS.  And  another  reptile,  (Fig.  15.)  still  more  extra- 
ordinary, has  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  ancient  layers  of 
the  earth.  According  to  the  structure  of  its  bony  frame,  we  see, 
like  the  bat,  it  must  have  been  capable  of  walking  and  flying; 
for  its  posterior  extremities,  and  all  the  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  with 
a  single  exception,  are  formed  in  the  ordinary  way;  but  the 
second  toe  of  the  anterior  extremities  is  more  than  twice  as  long 

36,  How  are  the  Scincoidea  characterised? 

37.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  Scincoidea? 
38    What  is  the  Pterodactylus  ? 


PTERODACTYLUS. 


Fig.  15 


as  the  body,  and  probably  sustained  a  fold  of  skin,  fitted  to 
perform  the  functions  of  wings.*  To  indicate  this  singular  con- 
formation, the  generic  name  of  PTERODACTYLUS  has  been  given 
to^these  fossil  Saurians. 


ORDER    OF    OPHIDIANS,    OR    SERPENTS. 


39.  We  ordinarily  group  with  Serpents,  or  Ophidians,  all  rep. 
tiles  that  have  a  cylindrical,  elongated  body,  without  extremities  ; 
but  in  order  that  the  classification  of  these  animals  may  represent 
the  modifications  introduced  by  nature  in  their  organization,  and 
indicate  the  degree  of  physiological  importance   of  these   diffe- 
rences, it  becomes  necessary  to  separate  from  the  serpents,  some 
apodous  reptiles  in  which  respiration  is  at  first   branchial,   then 
pulmonary,  as  it  is  in  ordinary  Batrachians.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  passage  between  the  Saurians  and  Ophidians  is  so  gradual, 
that  the  limits  between  these  two  orders  are  somewhat  arbitrary. 
Some  naturalists  even  think,  they  should  not  be  separated,  and, 
according  to  others,  it  would  be  proper  to  range  in  the   division 
of  Saurians,  those  reptiles  that,  by  their  internal  organization, 
are  removed  from  the  common  type  of  Ophidians,  and  approach 
that  of  the  Scincoidea. 

40.  The  apodous  reptiles,  which  are  in  a  manner  intermediate 
between  the  Saurians  and  the  Serpents  properly  so   called,  are 

*  The  dotted  line  indicates  what  it  is  presumed,  was  the  outline  of  the  anima!. 

39,  What  description  of  reptiles  belong  to  the  order  of  Ophidians. 

40.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the    An^nes?     What    are   their 
nabits?     Upon  what  do  they  feed?     What  are  Glass-Snakes?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  common  Angue  of  Europe? 


STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 53 

the  SNAKES,  or  ANGUES, — Anyuina.  They  are  easily  distinguished 
by  the  imbricate  scales,  which  cover  the  body  like  those  of 
the  Scincoidea ;  they  also  approximate  the  Saurians  by  the 
presence  of  three  eye-lids,  organs  that  are  not  found  in  true 
serpents.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  and  but  slightly  extensile,  and 
the  bony  skull  possesses  the  same  conformation  as  that  of  the 
Scinques;  and  we  find  beneath  the  skin  of  most  of  these  animals, 
vestiges  of  a  pelvis  and  shoulder  bones.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
resemble  true  serpents  in  the  general  form  of  the  body,  and  in 
the  small  size  of  their  lungs.  They  are  very  mild  animals,  and, 
when  taken  hold  of,  do  not  attempt  to  bite.  Their  moufh  is 
small,  and  armed  with  teeth  like  those  of  the  Scincoidea ;  they 
feed  on  different  insects  and  terrestrial  mollusks,  and  entirely 
conceal  themselves  in  holes,  and  are  torpid  in  winter.  Their 
tail,  like  that  of  lizards,  breaks  with  the  greatest  facility,  and 
some  Angues  stiffen  themselves  so  much  when  taken  that  the 
body  breaks,  which  singular  circumstance  has  obtained  for  them 
the  name  of  Glass  snakes.  The  Common  Jlnguv  of  Europe, — 
tfnynis  fiagilis^ — is  about  a  foot  long,  and  its  tail,  which  is 
obtuse,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  body,  is  of  the  same  length  as  the 
latter.  Its  scales  are  smooth  and  shining ;  it  is  blackish  beneath, 
and  of  a  yellowish  lead  colour  above,  with  three  black  bands, 
which,  as  it  advances  in  age,  change  to  a  series  of  points,  and 
finally  disappear  ;  it  has  no  external  tympanum.  It  digs  subter- 
raneous galleries,  and  produces  its  young  like  vipers,  in  which 
the  eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid. 

41.  The   TRUE  SERPENTS, — Serpentia, — possess   no    internal 
trace  of  anterior  extremities :  they  have  no  vestige   of  sternum 
or  shoulder ;  but  many  of  them  have,  beneath   the   skin,  rudi- 
ments of  posterior  extremities,  which  sometimes  show  themselves 
externally,  in  the  form  of  a  small  hook      The  skin  is   furnished 
with  scales,  which,  in  general,  are  small,  and   imbricate   above, 
and  in  the  form  of  broad  quadrangular  plates  beneath  :  they 
have  no  tympanum,  and  their  eyes  appear  to  be  entirely  without 
lids;  for  they  are  only  covered  by  a  sort  of  single  and  immove- 
able  veil,  which  is  set  in,  like  a  watch-glass,  in  front  of  the  orbit, 
and  which  permits  the  passage  of  light. 

42.  The  vertebrae  and  ribs,  by  themselves,   form   almost  the 
whole  skeleton  of  serpents.     Their  number  is  very  considerable  ; 
in  the  viper  we  count  198  vertebrae;  in  the  Boa,  304;  and  in  the 
Ringed  Snake,  316.     The  form  of  these  bones  is  nearly  the  same 
throughout  the  column,  and  their  mode  of  articulation   is  very 

41.  What  kind  of  eye  lids  have  true  Serpents?     What  are  the   general 
characters  of  Serpents  ? 

42.  What  bones  are  most  numeious  in  the  skeleton  of  Serpents  ? 

4* 


54 STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 

remarkable :  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  of  each  vertebra  pre- 
sents a  rounded  semi-spherical  tubercle  which  is  received  in  a 
corresponding  cavity  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  vertebra  next 
to  it.  This  mode  of  articulation  explains  the  movements  of  the 
body  of  these  animals,  which,  in  general,  are  executed  laterally, 
and  not  from  above  downwards;  in  fact,  the  spinous  processes 
which  prevail  along  the  back  are  ordinarily  so  disposed  as  to 
prevent  the  vertebral  column  from  bending  very  much  in  this 
direction.  The  ribs  surround  a  large  part  of  the  circumference 
of  the  trunk,  and  are  wanting  only  on  the  caudal  vertebrae.  The 
first  pair  are  smaller  than  the  others  ;  but  they  commence  at  the 
head,  so  that  these  animals  have  no  neck.  We  count  in  some 
instances  as  many  as  250  pairs. 

43.  Serpents  are  essentially  carnivorous ;  they  can  endure 
abstinence  for  a  long  time;  but,  in  general,  when  the  opportunity 
occurs,  they  gorge  the  stomach  with  such  a  quantity  of  food, 
that,  during  digestion,  they  remain  in  a  state  of  greater  or  less 
torpor :  they  do  not  chew  their  food  ;  but  their  mouth  is  armed 
with  hooked  teeth,  suited  for  retaining  their  prey.  Their  tongue 
is  very  extensible,  and  terminates  in  two  long,  semi-cartilaginous, 
and  very  moveable  filaments.  The  digestive  canal  is  very  short, 
and  the  stomach  is  merely  a  slight  dilatation  of  this  tube. 

44  The  circulation  is  carried  on  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
Tortoises  and  Saurians,  except  Crocodiles.  The  heart  is  com- 
posed of  two  auricles  and  a  single  ventricle,  incompletely  divided 
into  two  cavities,  from  each  one  of  which  arises  an  aorta,  which 
joins  its  fellow  behind  this  organ.  The  lungs  are  very  unequal 
in  size,  and  generally  one  of  the  two  is  entirely  atrophied,  while 
the  other  is  very  large,  and  prolonged  into  the  abdomen,  above 
and  beyond  the  stomach  and  liver:  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  large 
membranous  sack,  in  the  interior  of  which  are  found  great  poly- 
gonal cells.  The  air  is  renewed  in  them  by  the  motions  of  the 
ribs  and  abdominal  muscles,  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  in 
saurians  and  birds.  Probably,  it  is  in  part  owing  to  the  position 
of  the  lungs  that  serpents  become  torpid  after  a  copious  repast; 
for,  every  time  they  swallow  H  prey  of  large  size,  this  organ  must 
be  compressed,  and  the  pulmonary  circulation  impeded. 

45.  The  structure  of  the  head  varies  in  these  animals.  Some- 
times the  lower  jaw,  the  two  branches  of  which  are  solidly  united 
in  front,  is  supported  on  a  tympanic  bone,  which  is  itself  immedi- 

43.  Upon  what  do  Serpents  feed  ?     Do  they  chew  their  food  ?     What  is 
the  character  of  their  digestive  organs  ? 

44.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  circulation  in  Serpents?  What  is  the 
character  of  their  respiratory  apparatus?     Why  are  Serpents  torpid  after  a 
full  meal? 

45.  Is  the  structure  of  the  head  the  same  in  all  these  animals  7 


STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 


Fig.  16.* 


ately  articulated  with  the  cranium,  as  in  Saurians  and  Chelonians, 
but,  in  general,  the  tympanic  bones  are  moveable. 

46.  The  true  Serpents  with  immoveable  tympanic  bones  also 
have  the  upper  jaw  fixed  to  the  cranium,  and  the  mouth  but  little 
dilatable,  (l^ig.   16.):  they  form  the  small 

family  of  double  walkers, — Amphiibana, — 

so  called  from  their  faculty  of  moving  equally 

well,  both  forward  and  backwards.     Those 

that  form  the  genus  of  Amphisbaenji  have 

the  body  surrounded  by  circular  ranges  of 

small  quadrangular  scales,  like  certain  Scincoids  ;    the   others. 

called  TYPHLOPS,  have  small  imbricate  scales,  and  at  first  sight, 

resemble  earth  worms.    These  Ophidians  inhabit  the  warmcoun 

tries  of  both  continents:  some  of  them  are  blind. 

47.  True  Serpents  having  moveable  tympanic  bones,  form  a 
more  numerous  family      Some  of  them  resemble  the  preceding  in 
the  cylindrical  form  of  the  head  and  body,  and  in  the  smallness  of 
their  scales.     The  mouth  is  less  dilatable  than  in  other  ophidians 
of  this  division  ;  for  the  tympanic  bone  is  directly  articulated  to 
the  cranium,  while,  in  the  last,  it  is  suspended  to  a  mastoid  bone 
which  is  itself  moveable.     The  genus  of  Tortrix,  possesses  this 
kind  of  organization. 

48.  In  all  the  ORDINARY  SERPENTS, 
we  have  yet  to  mention,  the  mouth 
is  so  formed  as  to  enable  the  ani- 
mal to  swallow  bodies  larger  than 
itself.     The  two   branches   of  the 
lower  jaw  are  not  united,  and  the 
kind   of  peduncle   which    sustains 
them   ( the   tympanic    bone,    Piy. 
17,  /.)  is  not  only  moveable  itself, 
but  is  suspended  to  another  portion 


17.t 


*  Explanation  of  Fig.  16. — The  bony  head  of  an  Ophidian  of  the  division 
of  Amphisbaena. 

^Explanation  of  Fig.  17. — Bony  head  of  a  Rattlesnake,— c.  the  cranium, 
— ma.  the  mastoid  bone  which  articulates  by  one  extremity,  with  the 
cranium,  and  bv  the  other,  supports  the  tympanic  bone,  (£.) — mi.  the  lower 
jaw  suspended  from  the  tympanic  bone, — n.  the  vomer  and  nasal  bones, — m. 
the  moveable  upper  jaw  bone, — pi.  one  of  the  plerygoid  bones  (portions  of 
the  sphenoid,)  the  internal  of  which  is  continuous  with  the  palatine  arches, 
— p,  pe.  palatine  teeth. — d.  the  poisonous  fangs. 

46.  What  are  Amphisbaenae  ?  . 

47.  What  is  the  organization  of  the  head  in  the  genus  Tortrix  ? 

48.  What  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  head  enable  certain  Sernenls 
to  swallow  bodies  larger  than  themselves? 

2L 


55  STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS.— BOAS. 

of  the  temporal  bone,  called  mustoid  bone,  ( ma.)  which  is  also 
separate  from  the  cranium,  and  attache^  to  this  bony  case  by 
ligaments  and  muscles  only  ;  the  branches  of  the  upper  jaw  are 
not  fixed  to  the  intermaxillary  bone  except  by  ligament,  which 
permits  them  to  separate  more  or  less;  the  palatine  arches  also 
participate  in  this  mobility.  Another  character,  peculiar  to  this 
group,  is  the  existence  of  sharp  teeth,  curved  backwards,  planted 
in  these  arches  as  well  as  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 

49.  In  other  respects  the  armature  of  the  mouth  varies,  and 
these  differences  are  of  great  importance  ;  for  they  coincide  with 
the  existence  or  absence  of  an  apparatus  for  the  secretion  of  an 
active  poison,  which  the  animal  uses  to  kill  the  prey  it  bites. 
Ordinary  serpents  are  therefore  divided  into  venomous  serpents, 
and  serpents  which  are  not  venomous. 

Fiu.  18.*  50.  The  NON- VENOMOUS  SERPENTS,  are  re- 

cognised by  their  teeth,  no  one  of  which  is 
moveable  or  hollowed  by  a  canal  or  gutter ; 
they  are  all  fixed,  and  they  form  in  the  mouth 
four  nearly  equal  ranges  above,  (Fig.  18.) 
and  two  below. 

51.  Those  serpents  that  have  the  under 
part  of  the  body  and  tail  furnished  with  a 
single  band  of  transverse  scales  are  described 
under  the  name  of  Boas;  and  we  give  the 
collective  name  of  Colubers  to  those  in  which 
the  under  part  of  the  tail  is  covered  by  plates 
im  in  pairs,  divided  on  a  middle  line. 

52.  The  division  of  BOAS  is  composed   of   Boas  properly  so 
called,  of  Erix,  &c. 

53.  The  BOAS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  have  a  compressed  body, 
a  prehensile  tail,  a  hook  on  each  side  of  the  anus  and  small  scales 
on  the  back  of  the  head  at  least.     The  largest  serpents  known, 
belong  to  this  genus;  certain  species  attain  thirty  and  even  forty 
feet   in  length,  and   manage  to  swallow  deer,  and,  as  we  are 
assured,  even  oxen.     They  are   unprovided    with   venom,   but, 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  1 8. — The  bony  head  of  a  Non-venomous  Serpent 
seen  from  below  : — c.  the  cranium, — im.  the  intermaxillary  bone, — m.  the 
maxillary  bones, — p.  the  palatine  bones. 

49.  Is  the  mouth,  in  all  ordinary  Serpents,  armed  in  the  same  way  ?  How 
are  ordinary  Serpents  divided  ? 

50.  How  are  the  Non-venomons  Serpents  recognised? 

51.  Wha^are  Boas?     What  are  Colubers? 

52.  How  is  the  division  of  Boas  divided  ? 

53.  What  are  the  characters  of  Boas  properly  so  called?    What  are  their 
habits  ?  To  what  part  of  the  world  do  Boas  belong  ?  What  is  the  Divine  Boa? 


POAS.— PYTHONS.  57 


possessing  great  agility,  and  prodigious  strength,  they  are  not 
the  less  formidable.  Concealed  in  the  grass,  or  suspended  by 
its  tail  from  the  branches  of  a  tree  in  a  pathway,  or  on  the 
bank  of  a  rivulet,  the  Boa  watches  an  opportunity  of  seizing  its 
prey,  which  it  surrounds  in  its  folds,  and  presses  so  strongly 
that  the  animal  is  soon  stifled,  and  its  bones  crushed.  When 
the  Serpent  has,  so  to  speak,  kneaded  its  victim,  it  bathes  it 
in  slaver,  and.  enormously  dilating  its  jaws,  slowly  swallows  it. 
We  are  assured,  that  several  days  are  required  to  swallow  an 
entire  animal,  eaten  in  this  way,  and  that  a  part  of  it  is 
already  digested  before  the  whole  has  entered  the  mouth  of  the 
reptile.  After  a  repast  of  this  kind.  Boas  remain  motionless  in 
some  retired  spot,  exhaling  a  fetid  odour.  It  is  then  easy  to  kill 
them,  and  it  appears,  their  flesh  is  not  a  disagreeable  aliment,  for 
certain  Indian  tribes  feed  upon  it.  During  a  very  long  time,  the 
greatest  confusion  pervaded  the  history  of  these  great  serpents, 
which  were  confounded  with  the  Pythons.  It  was  believed  they 
were  found  in  Africa  and  Asia,  as  well  as  in  America  ;  but  it  now 
seems  to  be  certain,  that  they  are  peculiar  to  the  western  conti- 
nent. The  most  celebrated  species  owes  its  name  to  an  error  of 
this  kind.  It  was  called  the  Diciue  Boa,  because  what  was  said 
of  certain  large  Colubers,  which  the  negroes  of  Mozambique 
make  objects  of  religious  worship,  was  attributed  to  it.  It  seem.* 
that  the  Brazilians  and  even  the  ancient  Mexicans,  rendered  it 
similar  honours.  This  enormous  reptile,  which  is  also  called  the 
Boa  Constrichir,  inhabits  the  warm  and  humid  parts  of  America  ; 
its  head  is  covered  with  small  scales  to  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  and 
it  is  easily  recognised  by  a  sort  of  chain-links,  formed  along  the 
back,  of  hexagonal  blackish  spots,  and  others  of  a  yellowish  colour. 
Two  other  species,  which  inhabit  the  same  countries  attain  nearly 
the  same  size  :  the  Boa  anaconda,  and  the  Boa  auoma. 

54.  The  division  of  COLUBERS  includes  the  Pythons,  the  Colu- 
bers properly  so  cal/ed,  and  many  other  genera. 

55.  The  PYTHONS,  are,  as  it  were,  the  representatives   of  the 
Boas  in  the  old  world  :  they  attain  the  same  gigantic  size,  and 
are  also  furnished  with  hooks  near  the  anus  :  they  have  narrow 
ventral  plates;  but  those  beneath  the  tail  are  double  instead    of 
being  simple.     It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  some  of  these 
serpents  have  the  first,  others  the  second  plates  of  the  tail  simple, 
which  seems  to  establish  a  gradual  passage   betwixt  these   two 
genera,  the  distinction  of  which,  in  other  respects,  is  founded  upon 
unimportant  particulars.     Be  it  as  it  may,  to  the  Pythons  miiai  rw» 
referred  all  that  has  been  said  of  the  Boas  of  Africa  and 


54.  What  genera  are  included  in  the  division  of  Colubers  ? 

55.  What  are  Pythons  ?     What  are  their  characters  ? 


COLUBERS. —VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 

56.  The  COLUBERS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Coluber, — have  the 
head  covered  by  large  plates,  (Pig.  19.)  and  neither  fossettes  on 

19  the  sides  of  the  muzzle,  nor  hooks  near  the 

anus.  The  number  of  these  Serpents  is 
immense ;  the  most  common  in  France, 
(Fig.  19.)  is  the  Ringed  Snake,—  Colubei 
uatrixj — it  is  ash-coloured  with  black  spots 
along  the  flanks,  and  three  whitish  spots 
form  a  collar  around  the  neck.  Its  length 
is  about  three  feet ;  it  is  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  stagnant  waters.  It  swims 
with  ease,  and  lives  chiefly  on  insects,  mol- 
lusks,  and  frogs ;  it  does  not  attempt  to  bite, 
COLUBER.  except  when  very  much  irritated,  and  the 

wound'it  inflicts  is  by  no  means  dangerous.     It  is  eaten  in  many 

French  provinces. 

57.  VENOMOUS  SERPENTS  are  provided  with  a  particular  gland, 
situate  on  each  side  of  the  head,  whicTi  pours  out  the  poison  that 
it  secretes,  by  an  excretory  duct,  the  extremity  of  which  empties 

Fig.  20.*  into  one  of  the  maxillary  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw.  This  gland, 
(Fig.  20,  g.)  is  placed  beneath 
the  temporal  muscles,  so  as  to  be 
compressed  when  they  contract, 
and  this  tooth  which  is  larger 
than  the  others,  is  sometimes  per- 
forated by  a  canal,  and  at  others, 
g  ^  simply  has  a  gutter  on  one  side; 
RATTLE  SNAKE.  Dut  in  either  case,  its  duct  is  in 
communication  with  the  excretory  canal  of  the  venomous  gland, 
and  serves  to  pour  the  poison  into  the  bottom  of  the  wound  made 
by  the  tooth  itself.  This  liquid  is  a  most  violent  poison.  It  is 
neither  acrid  nor  burning,  and  only  produces  a  sensation  on  the 
tongue  analogous  to  that  occasioned  by  a  fatty  matter,  and  may 
be  swallowed  with  impunity ;  but,  introduced  into  a  wound,  in 
sufficient  quantity,  it  causes  death  with  frightful  rapidity. 

^Explanation  of  Fig.  20.— Poison  apparatus  of  a  Rattlesnake: — g-.  the 
venomous  gland,  the  excretory  can;il  of  which  empties  into  a  large  moveable 
tooth,  (c,) — m.  the  elevator  muscles  of  the  jaw  which  partly  cover  the  gland 
nnd  compress  if, — s.  salivary  glands  along  the  edge  of  the  jaws, — n.  the 
nostrils,  beneath  which  is  seen  the  fossette,  or  pit,  which  distinguishes  these 
serpents  and  trigonocephali  from  the  vipers. 

56.  What  are  the  characters  of  Colubers  properly  so  called  ?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Ringed  Snake  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

57.  What  peculiar  apparatus  distinguishes  the  venomous  Serpents  7  What 
are  the  properties  of  their  venom  ? 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS 59 

58.  Its  energy  varies  according  to  the  species,  and  according 
to  the  condition  of  the  serpent.     The  same  species  seems  to  be 
more  dangerous  in  warm  than  in  cold  or  temperate  climates,  and 
the  effects  are  serious  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  poison 
poured  into  the  wound  :  these  animals  are  more  formidable  when 
they  have  fasted  for  sometime,  and  the  poison  has  accumulated  in 
considerable  quantity  in  the  glands  where  it  is  secreted,  than 
when   they  have  just   bitten  several  times,  and   only  "a  small 
quantity  of  the  liquid  is  left.     It  is  remarked  also  that  their  poison 
does  not  act  in  the  same  manner  on  all  animals.     It  appears  that 
to  Leeches,  Snails,  the  Asp,  the  Coluber,  and  Angue,  the  venom 
of  the  Viper,  for  example,  is  not  poisonous,  while  it  kills  all  warm 
blooded  animals,  Lizards,  and  the  Viper  itself,  with  great  rapidity. 
In  general,  the  quantity  of  poison  necessary  to  cause   death  is, 
all  things  being  equal,  large  in  proportion  to  the   size  of  the 
animal  wounded  ;  thus,  when  the  hundredth  part  of  a    grain  of 
the  poison  of  a  Viper  is  sufficient  to  kill  a  Sparrow,   it    would 
require  six  times  as  much  to  kill  a  Pigeon. 

59.  This   poison,   to  act   on   the   animal  economy,  must  be 
absorbed  and  carried  into  the  circulation :  therefore,  in  cases  of 
bites  of  venomous  serpents,  we  should   hasten,    by   appropriate 
means,  to  prevent  this  absorption,  so  as  to  gain  time  to    extract 
or  destroy  the  poison,  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  wound. 
Compression  of  the  veins  above  the  wound,  between  it  and  the 
heart,  and  the  application  of  a   cupping-glass  over   the  wound 
itself,  are  the  most  appropriate  means  of  retarding  the  absorption 
of  the  poison ;  but,  to  remove  all  danger  completely,  we  should 
enlarge  the  wound,  and  cauterise  the  bottom  of  it,  either  with  a 
red  hot  iron,  or  with  some  energetic  caustic.     Several   internal 
remedies  have  been  much  vaunted,  such  as  Ammonia,  or  Vola- 
tile Alkali,  Arsenic,  &c.,   but  these    means,    though  sometimes 
useful,  should  not  inspire  great  confidence.     The  Indians  of  South 
America  attribute  still  greater  virtues  to  a  plant  of  that  country, 
known  under  the  name  of  Guaco,  or  llicania  gvaco;  they  assure 
us  that  not  only  the  application  of  the  leaves  of  the  Guaco  to  the 
bite  o(  the  most  venomous  serpents  prevents  all  deleterious  effects, 
but  also  that  innoculation  with  the  juice  of  this   plant  prevents 
these  animals  from  biting  persons  so  prepared.     In  support  of 
this  opinion  the  observations  of  Vergas,  a  Spanish  author,  and 
of  Mutis  are  cited  ;  and   the  celebrated   and   learned    traveller, 
Baron  Ilumboldt,  thinks,  according  to   some  experiments,  that 

5ft.  IP  the  venom  of  Serpents  equally  act've  under  all  circumstances  ? 
When  is  it  most  to  he  dreaded? 

59.  What,  n  the  hest  mode  of  treating  a  person  who  has  been  bitten  by  a 
poisonous  reptile  ?  or* 


60  VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


the  Guaco  may  impart  to  the  skin  an  odour  which  is  repugnant 
to  the  serpent  and  prevent  it  from  biting. 

60.  SERPENTS  WITH  MOVEABLE,  VENOMOUS  FANGS,  are  the  most 
formidable.     The   fangs,   (Fig.  20,   c.)   situate   in  front  of  the 
mouth,  are  isolated,  very  sharp,  and  pierced  by  a   small  canal, 
which  opens  near  their  extremity  j  they  are  fixed  on  very  small 
maxillary  bones,  (Fig.  18,  im  )  and  these  bones  being  supported 
on  a  long  pedicle,  are  very  moveable,  so  that  when  the  animal  does 
not  wish  to  use  them,  they  are  folded  backwards,  and  lie  concealed 
in  a  fold  of  the  gum,  and  when  required  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  erected.     There  is  one  of  these  long  teeth  on  each  side,  and 
behind  each  one,  there  are  many  germs  to  replace  it,  in  the  event 
of  its  being  broken  in  a  wound ;  but  the   intermaxillary  bones 
support  no  other  teeth,  and,  consequently,  we  find  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  mouth,  only  two  rows  of  palatine  teeth,    instead    of 
four  rows,  as  in  Colubers. 

61.  The  head  of  these  serpents  is  generally  wide  behind,  and 
their  aspect  is  more  fierce  than  that  of  the  preceding.     They  are 
all  Mo-viviparous,  that  is,  they  are  born  alive,  because  their  eggs 
are  hatched  before  they  are  laid.     Hence  the   name   of  Viper, 
which  is  a  contraction  of  i-iviparou*,  is  given  to  most  of  them. 

62.  The  most  remarkable  genera  of  this  division  of  venomous 
Serpents,  are  the  Crotalus,  Triyomtcepkalun,  Viper,  and  A  a/a. 

63.  The  RATTLE  SNAKES,— Cro- 
talus, — owe  their  name  to  a  sin- 
gular apparatus  which  terminates 
the  tail,  and  which  distinguishes 
them  from  all  other  Ophidians.  It 
consists  of  a  series  of  horny 
scales,  loosely  fitting  into  each 
other  like  a  nest  of  boxes,  which 
move,  vibrate  and  sound,  when 
the  animal  moves  its  tail,  (Fig. 
21.)  The  number  of  these  scales 
increases  with  age ;  it  seems  there 
is  an  additional  one  after  each 
moult,  and  that  they  are  formed 
by  the  epidermis  of  the  Serpent, 
turned  upon  itself  like  the  finger 
of  a  glove,  and  retained  at  the 
'extremity  of  the  tail.  This  in- 
strument vibrates  with  extreme 


RATTLK  SNAKE. 


60.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  fangs,  in  venomous  Serpents? 

61.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  Viper? 

62.  What  are  the  chief  genera  of  the  division  of  venomous  Serpent*  * 

63.  What  neculiarity  gives  name  to  the  Rattle  Snake? 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. Cl 

lapidity,  an  I  thus  produces  a  noise  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard 
at  a  distance  of  several  fathoms. 

64.  Rattle  Snakes  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  even 
more  :  they  inhabit  America,  and  are  celebrated  for  the  violence 
of  their  poison.     In  general,  they  do  not  bite  except   when   pro- 
voked, and  they  rarely  attack   animals  too   large  for  them   to 
swallow.    Notwithstanding  that  their  food  chiefly  consists  of  birds, 
squirrels,  &c.,  they  do  not  climb  upon  trees.    It   was  believed 
for  a  long  time  that  they  possessed  the  power  of  stupifying  their 
victims  by  their  breath,  or  even  charming  them  by   their  gaze, 
and  thus  forcing  them  to  enter  their  mouth;  but  it   is   only  the 
extreme  terror  they  inspire  in  small  animals,  which  confounds 
them  so  much  as  to  prevent  their  flight,  causing  them  to  perform 
irregular  movements,  and  even  to   fall  into  the  jaws  of  their 
enemy.     These    serpents    ordinarily    keep    themselves    coiled 
spirally,  near  a  watering-place,  frequented  by  small   mammals. 
There  they  tranquilly  wait,  until  some  victim  presents  itself,  and, 
when   within  reach,  they  spring  upon    it   with  the  rapidity  of 
lightning.     In   parts  of     North  America,  where   the   winter  is 
rigorous,  they  are  benumbed  during  winter,  and,  we  are  assured, 
that  during  the  cold   seeson,  their  bite  is  not   dangerous.     In 
Cayenne,  and  other  warm  countries,  they  are  never  benumbed. 
Negroes  eat  their  flesh. 

65.  Many  species  of  Rattle  Snake  are  known  :  mos>t  of  them 
have  the  head  covered  with  scales  like  those  on  the   back  ;  that 
which  is  most  common  in  the  United   States,  is   brown,    with 
irregular,  transverse,  blackish  bands;  that  of  Guiana  has  lozenge 
shaped  spots,  bordered  with  black.     Both  are  about  six   feet  in 
length. 

66.  The  TRIGONOCEPHALI  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
by  the  absence  of  the  rattle;  but  like  them  they  have  the  fossette 
or  pit,  behind  the  nostrils.     Some   of  them    have   simple,   sub- 
caudal  plates,  like  the  Boas  and  Rattle  Snakes ;  others  have  the 
tail  furnished   beneath  with  double  plates  like  the  Colubers,  and 
most  Vipers.     They  equal  the  Rattle  Snakes  in  the   violence   of 
their  poison,  and  most  of  them  inhabit  the    western   continent. 
The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Yellow  Trigonocephalits,  also 
called  the  Yellow  Snake  of  the   West  Indies,  and  Lance-headed 
Viper, —  7\iyoitocephali<s  lanceolatus.     This  reptile  is  very  com- 
mon in  Martinique  and  the  neighbouring  Islands.     It  lives  among 

64.  What  arc  the  habits  of  the  Rattlesnake  ?     Where  are  Rattle  Snakes 
usually  met  with? 

65.  Is  there  more  than  one  spcciea  of  the  Rattle  Snake? 

66.  How  are  the  Trigonocephali  distinguished  from  Rattle  Snakes?    What 
«  the  Lance-headed  Viper  ?     Where  is  it  found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


6-2 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


sugar-canes,  where  it  feeds  on  rats,  and  causes  the  death  of  many 
slaves.  Its  length  is  from  six  to  seven  feet,  and  it  is  extremely 
active;  it  climbs  the  highest  trees  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  and 
springs  like  lightning,  not  only  on  birds  and  other  small  animals 
upon  which  it  ordinarily  feeds,  but  also  on  large  animals,  and 
even  on  man. 

67.  The  VIPERS, —  Vipera, — differ  from  the  venomous  serpents 
just  mentioned,  by  the  absence  of  the  pits  behind   the  nostrils. 


Fig.  22. 


Many  of  them  have  been  frequently 
confounded  with  the  Colubers,  on 
account  of  their  double,  sub-caudal 
plates,  and  some  of  them  having  the 
head  furnished  with  large  plates  like 
the  latter ;  but  most  all  Vipers  have 
the  head  covered  by  small  imbricated 
.  HEAD  OF  A  VIPER.  or  granular  scales,  ( Fig.  22 )  The 

Common  Viper,—  Vipera  herns,—  possesses  this  latter  character. 

It  rarely  exceeds  two  feet  in  length,  (/%.  23.)  and  is  generally 

brown  with  a  double  row  of  transverse,  black  spots  alone  MI<; 

back,  and  another  row  upon  the  flank ;    but 

these  spots  are  often  united,   forming  zig-zag 

bands.     One   of   these    Vipers    is    sometimes 

named  the  Asp,  in  some  parts  of  France,  but 

it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  Asp 

of  the  ancients.     It  inhabits  the  mountainous, 

stony  and  woody  districts   of   temperate  and 

Southern    Europe.     It  feeds, on   mice,    moles, 

young   birds,  reptiles,  and    even   insects  and 

worms.     During  the  cold  season,  these  reptiles 

remain  benumbed  in  holes,  where  several  are 

often  found  twined  together.     They  are  most 

frequently  seen  on  the  first  fine  days  of  spring, 

warming  themselves  in  the  sunshine  ;  but  when 

the  weather  becomes  very  hot,  they  are  rarely 

met.     They  produce  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  young  ones  a* 

each  birth,  which  do  not  acquire  their  full  size  until  they  are  six 

or  seven  years  old.     Of  all  the  venomous  reptiles  of  Europe,  the 

common  Viper  is  the  most  dangerous ;  even  in   the  climate   of 

France,  its  bite  may  cause  the  death  of  a  man  in  a  few   hours, 

and  kill  small  animals  in  a  few  minutes.     The  quantity  of  poison 

it  generally  pours  into  a  wound  is  not  sufficient  to  be  fatal  to 

man. 


67    How  are  Vipers  distinguished  from  the  venomous  Serpents  just  spoken 
of?    What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Viper?    What  are  its  habits' 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


63 


Fig.  24. 


68.  The  Littie  Viper-, —  Vipera  c.iersam, — which  is  common  in 
the  north  of  Furope,  and  which  is  also  found   in  the  Pyrennes, 
has  upon  the  head  three  plates  somewhat  larger  than  the  scales 
surrounding  them.     It  is  about  six  inches  long;  but  its  poison 
is  very  violent. 

69.  The  Vipera  illyrica,  inhabits  the  south  of  Europe,  and  ia 
distinguished  from  the  common    Viper   by    a   small   soft   horn, 
covered  with  scales,  that  it  has  on  the  end  of  the  muzzle  ;  and 
the   Horned    Vtpe?, — Coluber   tv/v/.s/rs, — of  which    the  ancients 
often  speak,  is  recognised  by  a  s  nail  horn    placed  on  each   eye- 
brow.    It  is  found  in  the  burning  s  mds  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

70.  The  NAJA  resemble  the  Vipers,  except  that  their   head  is 
always  furnished  with  plates, and  the  anterior  ribs  can  be  erected 
and  carried  forward,  so  as  lo  dilate  this  part  of  the  trunk  into  a 
kind  of  disk,  which  is  more  or  less  wide,  (Fiy.  24.)    Two  species 
of  this  genus  are  known ;  the  Spectacle  Quake,  and  the  Asp  of 
Egypt. 

71.  The  Spectacle  Snake,  (or 
Cobra  CapcHo  of  the  Portuguese 
in  India,) — Coluber  mija, —  owes 
its  name  to  a  black  line,  in  form 
of  a  pair  of  spectacles,  traced  upon 
the  extensible  part  of  its  neck.  Its 
length  is  about  four  feet  ;  its  bite 
is  extremely  dangerous,  and  it  is 
very  fierce:  nevertheless,  Indian 
jugglers  teach  it  to  execute   cer- 
tain movements,  in  time,   to  the 
sound  of  a  flute,  and   employ   it 
to  astonish  the  public;  to  .increase 
the  sale  of  their  pretended  specific 
against  the  venom  of  this  reptile, 
they  permit  themselves  even  to  be 
bitten  by  the  serpent,  somewhat 
tamed,  however;  but  they   take 

the  precaution  previously  to  extract  its  poisonous  fangs 

72.  The  Asp,  which    inhabits    Egypt, — Coluber   haje, — and 
which  is  about  two  feet  long,  is  also  employed  by  the  jugglers  of 
those  countries  to  amuse  the  public      By  pressing  it   with  the 
fingers  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  they  cause  it  to  fall  into  a    sort 


COBRA  CAPELLO. 


68.  What  is  the  Little  Viper  ? 

()9.  flow  is  the  Horned  Viper  recognised? 

?0    What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Naja  ? 

"3 1.   What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cobra  Gipello  ? 

72.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Asp  of  Cleopatra  ? 


64 VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 

of  catalepsy,  which  renders  it  stiff  and  immoveable,  as  if  they 
had  changed  it  into  a  rod  or  stick.  Its  poison  is  very  active,  and 
Galen  relates  that,  at  Alexandria,  they  resorted  to  the  bite  of 
this  serpent  to  abridge  the  punishment  of  criminals  condemned  to 
death.  It  is  unquestionably  the  Aa<)  of  Cleopatra.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  took  it  as  the  emblem  of  the  protecting  divinity  of  the 
world,  and  sculptured  it  on  their  monuments,  on  opposite  sides  of 
a  globe.  Its  habit  of  erecting  itself,  when  approached,  led  them 
to  believe  that  it  watched  the  fields  in  which  it  was  found. 

73.  Other  venomous  serpents  with  isolated  fangs,  called  ELAPS, 
have  a  mouth  that  is  hardly  dilatable;  and  there  are   some,  in 
which  the  tail  is   compressed   in  the  form  of  a  paddle,  whose 
habits  are  aquatic.     They  form  the  genus  of  PLATURUS. 

74.  Among  the  VENOMOUS  SERPENTS  WITHOUT  ISOLATED  FANGS, 
there  are  some  which  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Colu- 
bers;  their  mouth  is  furnished  above  with  four  rows  of  teeth  like 
the  non-venomous  serpents  without  there  being  perceived,  in  the 
place  ordinarily  occupied  by  the  fangs,  any  thing  of  a  nature  in- 
dicative of  the  existence  of  a  venomous  apparatus.     In  fact,  the 
excretory  canal  of  the  poisonous  gland,  in  them,  terminates  in 
one  of  the  last  maxillary  teeth,  which  is  somewhat  larger  than 
the   others,    and  simply  farrowed   by  a   gutter.     Some   of  the 
serpents  of  America  and  Africa  possess  this  kind  of  organization. 

75.  There  are  also  others   which,  with  the  armature   of  the 
mouth  very  nearly  like  the  last,  have  the  first  maxillary  tooth 
larger  than  the  others,  and  pierced,  like  the  moveable  fangs  above 
mentioned,  to  conduct  the  poison.     Some,  known  in  India  under 
the  name  of  Ruck  Serpents,  have  simple  plates  under  the   belly 
and  tail,  and  constitute  the  genus  BUNGARUS.     The  others,  called 
HYDRUS,  have  the  posterior  part  of  the  -body  and  tail  very  much 
compressed,  and  raised  vertically,  which  gives  them  facility  in 
swimming:  they  are  common  in  certain  parts  of  the  Indian  seas. 

73.  What  is  the  genus  Elaps  ?     What  is  the  genus  Platurus  ? 

74.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Serpents  without  isolated  fangs  ? 

75.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus    Bungarus  ?     What  are  the 
characters  of  the  genus  Hydrus  ? 


BATRACHIANS. fi5 

LUSSON   iv. 

ORDER  OF    BATRACHIA — Organization. —  Classification. 

FAMILY  OF  ANOURA. — Mrtamorpkotii  of   Toapoles. —  Habits.  — 

I'roys. —  Tree-Fi-oys  — Toads  — I'ipa. 
FAMILY  OF  URODELA. — Salamanders,  or   Water-Neivts. 
FAMILY  OF  BRANCHIFERA. — Jlxolotl. —  Alenobrauc/tus. —  Proteus. 

Siren. 
FAMILY  OF  APOD  A. — Ccvcilia. 


ORDER    OF    BATRACHIANS. 

1.  The  name  Batrachian,  (from  the  Greek,    Batfaclws,  frog,) 
is  given  to  all  reptiles  that  resemble  frogs  in  their  mode  of  organi- 
zation.    This  fourth  and  last  division  of  the  Class  of  Reptiles, 
brings  us  into  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fishes  ;  for  it  is  composed 
of  animals  that,  during  the  early  period  of  their  life,  respire   by 
branchiae,  and  resemble  fishes  in  their  habits  and  form,  as  well  as 
in  their  mode  of  organization,  but  which,  with  the  advance  of  age, 
undergo  a  true  metamorphosis,  and  acquire  characters  common 
to  other  reptiles.     When  in  this  transitory  state,  they  are  called 
Tadpoles. 

2.  The  branchiae  of  young  Batrachians  are   placed   upon   the 
sides  of  the  neck.,  and  are  sustained  by  the  lateral  prolongations 
of  a  cartilage  which  represents  the   hyoides.     Sometimes  they 
are   in  the   form  of  external   feathery  tufts,  which  float  in  the 
water;  at  others,  they  consist  of  filaments  fixed  along  the  hyoid 
branches  just  mentioned,  and  covered  by  the   integuments.     In 
proportion  as  the  lungs  become  developed,  in  general,  the  bran- 
chiae wither,  and  at  last  entirely  disappear  ;  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case,  and,  in  some  reptiles,  they  remain  throughout  life,  con- 
jointly with  the  lungs. 

1.  What  kind  of  animals  for  in  the  order  of  Batrachians?  What  are  Tadpoles? 

2.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  Branchiae  in  young-  Batrachians?     What 
is  their  form  ?     Do  they  always  ex  st  throughout  the  life  of  the  animal? 


CIRCULATION  OF  BATRACFIIAN*. 


Fig-.  20. 


i.  i.  o  t 


ap   crc 

CIRCULATION    OF    A    TADPOLK. 

Explanation  of  Fig-,26. — Principal  blood  vessels  of  the  Tadpole  of  the  Sala 
niander: — «  the  artery  which  arises  from  the  only  ventricle  of  the  heart; 
it  divides  into  six  branches  which  go  to  the  thiee  pairs  of  branchiae,  and 
there  ramify  ;  (they  are  called  branchial  arteiies,  alt.;} — br.  the  branchiae,  in 
whi<  h  we  see  the  distribution  of  the  branchial  arteries,  and  the  origin  o!  the 
branchial  veins,  (vb.)  which  receive  the  blood  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  larnellfB  of  the  branchiae  ;  those  of  the  two  lust  pairs  of  branchiae  unite 
on  each  side  to  form  a  vessel,  (c.)  which,  by  uniting  with  its  fellow  on  the 
opposite  side,  forms  the  ventral  aorta  or  dorsil  vessel,  (or.)  which  is  directed 
backwards,  and  distributes  the  blood  to  most  of  the  body  ;  the  branchial  vein 
of  the  first  pa  r  of  branchiae  is  bent  forwards,  and  carries  the  blood  towards 
the  head,  (<,f.); — 1.  an  extremely  small  anastomosing  branch,  which  unites, 
the  branchial  artery  and  vein,  at  the  base  of  the  first  branchiae,  and  which, 
by  afterwards  becoming  larger,  permits  the  blood  to  pass  from  the  first  of 
these  vessels  into  the  second,  without  passing  through  the  branchiae  ; — 2.  a 
email  anastomosing  branch  which,  in  the  same  manner,  establishes  a  com- 
munication, between  the  artery  and  vein  of  the  second  pair  of  branchiae ;  — 
3,  a  vessel,  which,  by  a  filament  situate  further  in,  also  joins  together  the 
artery  and  vein  of  the  posterior  branchiae ;— o.  the  orbital  artery  ;—ap.  the 
rudimental  pulmonary  arteries. 

Fig.  27.       1.,     t 


ot 


CIRCULATION    OF    A    TADPOLE,    IN   THE    PROGRESS    OF    METAMORPHOSIS. 

"Explanation  of  Fip.  27. — The  same  parts  in  a  Tadpole  in  which  the 
bianchiae  begin  to  lose  their  importance  in  respiration,  and  in  which  a  part 
of  the  blood  goes  from  the  heart  to  different  partb  of  the  body  without  pass- 


CIRCULATION  OF  BATR  \CHIANS. 


3.  The  apparatus  of  the  circulation  undergoes  changes  cor- 
responding to  those  experienced  by  the  organs  of  respiration. 
The  heart  of  Batrachians,  like  that  of  most  reptiles,  is  composed 
of  two  auricles  and  a  single  ventricle,  from  which  arises  a  great 
artery;  at  its  base,  this  artery  is  swelled  into  a  contractile  bulb, 
and  soon  after  bifurcates.  When  the  animal  breathes  by  bran- 
chiae alone,  the  blood,  forced  by  the  ventricle,  is  distributed  to 
these  organs,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  it,  goes  to  the 
dorsal  artery,  the  branches  of  which  ramify  in  the  various 
organs.  In  fishes  this  liquid  follows  the  same  course.  But  when 
the  lungs  are  developed,  the  disposition  of  the  circulatory  apparatus 
changes  :  there  is  established  a  direct  communication  between  the 
vessels  which  carry  the 
blood  to  the  branchiae, 
and  those  that  receive  it 
from  those  organs,  so  that 
it  is  not  necessary  for  this 
liquid  to  pass  through  the 
respiratory  apparatus  to 
reach  the  dorsal  artery, 
and,  through  it,  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 


Fig.  28* 


3. 


ap 


ap 


av 


The  artery,  (Fig.  28,0.) 
which  arises  from  the  ven- 
tricle, and  which  could  be 
compared  at   first   to    a 
branchial  artery,  then  be- 
comes   the  origin   of  the         CIRCULATION  IN  A  PERFECT  BATRACHIAN. 
dorsal  vessel,  and  with  it  constitutes  a  true  aorta,  certain  branches 
of  which,  that  go  to  the  lungs,  are  developed  at  the  same  time, 

ing  through  these  organs;  the  same  letters  indicate  the  sime  vessels  as  in 
the  preceding  figure,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  anastomosing  branches, 
(1.2.  3.)  which,  in  the  Tadpole,  were  capillary,  and  did  not  give  passage  to 
a  very  considerable  quantity  of  blood,  are  here  of  some  size,  and  that  they 
5<ecm  to  be  continuous  with  the  branchial  vessels  rather  than  with  the  arte- 
ries coming  from  the  heart.  The  pulmonary  arteries  are  also  much  developed. 
*  Explanation  of  Fi^.28. — The  same  parts  in  the  perfect  animal,  indicated 
hy  the  same  letters  as  in  Figs.  26.  and  27.  Here  the  vessels  of  the  branchiae 
have tecome rudimentary,  and  the  pulmonary  arteries  much  developed;  the 
vrnseb  which  convey  the  blood  to  the  middle  branchiae  are  continuous,  without 
interruption,  with  those  (c.)  that  receive  this  liquid  after  its  passage  through 
tlifse  organs,  and  thus  form  an  aortic  cross,  on  each  side  of  the  heart. 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  heart  in  Batrachians  ?  What  are  the 
peculiarities  of  the  circulation  in  Ratrachians  ?  In  what  respect  does  the 
circulation  of  Batrachians  differ  from  that  of  fishes?  Does  the  aorta  m 
Rulrachians  circulate  pure  arterial  blood? 

2M 


DIVISION  OF  BATRACHIANS. 


and  establish  a  pulmonary  circulation.  Finally,  the  branchial 
vessels  are  obliterated,  and  then  the  circulation  is  carried  on 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  it  is  in  other  reptiles.  The  venous 
blood,  returning  from  all  parts  of  the  body,  is  poured  into  the 
ventricle  by  one  of  the  auricles,  and  there  mixed  with  the  arterial 
blood,  coming  from  the  lungs  and  poured  into  the  same  ventricle, 
by  the  other  auricle.  This  mixture  enters  the  aorta;  a  small 
portion  goes  to  the  lungs,  but  the  largest  part  is  distributed  to 
the  different  organs  of  the  animal. 

4.  The  skeleton  of  Batrachians  presents  remarkable  peculiari- 
ties ;  in  general,  the  ribs  are  entirely   wanting,  or  are   merely 
rudimentary,  for  which  reason  pulmonary  respiration  cannot  be 

carried    on    by     the 

Fig.  29.  ordinary  mechanism  ; 

and  in  fact,  the  ani- 
mal introduces  air 
into  its  lungs  by  a 
species  of  deglutition. 
It  is  to  be  observed, 
also,  that  the  skin  of 
these  reptiles  is  not 
covered  with  scales 
lifte  that  of  Saurians, 

Ophidians,  and  most  Chelonians,  but  is  naked.  Almost  all  Batra- 
chians are  without  nails.  Their  eggs  are  enveloped  only  in  a 
gelatinous  mass  which  swells  very  much  in  water,  and  they  are 
not  generally  fecundated  until  after  they  are  laid. 

5.  This  order  is  divided  into  four  families,  namely  : 
1st.  The  ANOURA,  which,  in  their  perfect  state,  have  no  tail, 
and  do  not  preserve  their  branchia3,  and  are  provided  with  four 
extremities. 

2nd.  The  URODELA,  which  also  lose  their  branchis,  and  acquire 
extremities,  but  preserve  the  tail. 

3rd.  The  BRANCHIFERA,  which  always  preserve  their  branchiae  ; 
they  resemble  those  Urodela  in  which  developement  had  been 
arrested  while  yet  in  the  tadpole  state. 

4th.  The  APODA,  or  CECILIA,  which  also  lose  their  branchia3,  but 
never  acquire  extremities  :  until  lately  they  were  classed  amongst 
the  Ophidians,  under  the  name  of  Naked  Serpents,  or  Nnda. 

4.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton    of  Batrachians  '(     What 
IB  the  character  of  their  skin  ? 

5.  How  is  the  order  of  Batrachia  divided  ?     What  are  the   characters  of 
tne  family  of  Anoura,  when   perfect?     What   are    the    characters  of  the 
family  of  Urodela  when  perfect?     How    is   the  family   of  Apoda   charac- 
terised?    What  are    nak^d   serpents?     Wrhat   are   the    characters   of  the 
family  of  Branchifera? 


METAMORPHOSIS  OF  TADPOLES. 


FAMILY  OF  ANOURA. 

6  This  family  is  composed  of  frogs,  toads,  and  some  other 
reptiles  having  nearly  the  same  form.  In  thorn  the  metamor- 
phosis is  more  complete  than  in  all  other  animals  of  this  order. 
When  the  young  tadpole  first  leaves  the  egg,  it  resembles  a 
little  fish,  and  can  live  only  in  water.  Its  head  is  very  large,  its 
belly  protuberant,  and  its  body  unprovided  with  extremities,  is 
terminated  by  a  compressed  tail,  which  afterwards  becomes 
elongated,  and  much  raised  :  its  mouth  is  still  a  small,  scarcely 
perceptible  hole,  and  its  branchiae  consist  only  of  a  tubercle 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  head. 
These  appendages  very  soon  become  lengthened,  and 
are  divided  into  shreds,  (  Fig.  30.)  ;  the  eyes  are  percepti- 
ble through  the  skin,  and  a  transverse  slit  appears  under 
the  neck,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  membranous  operculum. 
A  little  later,  (  Fig.  23,  Payv.  67.)  the  branchiae  become 
ramified,  and  the  lips  are  covered  by  a  sort  of  horny 
beak,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  animal  fixes  itself  to  vege- 
tables, that  form  its  chief  food  ;  but  this  state  does  not 
last  long.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days  the  branchial  fringes,  which 
float  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  disappear,  (Fig.  31.)  and  respira- 
Fiq.  31.  t'on  *s  carr'ed  on  by  tne  assistance  of  small 

vascular  tufts,  placed  along  four  cartilaginous 
arches,  situate  under  the  throat,  and  pertain- 
ing to  the  hyoid  bone.  A  membranous  tunic, 
covered  by  the  skin,  envelopes  these  internal  branchiae,  to  which 
the  water  arrives  by  the  mouth,  passing  through  the  intervals  of 
the  arches  of  the  hyoid  bone  ;  finally,  after  having  laved  these 
organs,  this  liquid  escapes  by  one  or  two  external  slits,  the  situation 
of  which  varies  a  little  according  to  the  species.  The  respiratory 
apparatus,  then,  as  we  have  said  above,  exactly  resembles  that 
of  fishes.  Sometime  after-  p. 

wards,  the  posterior  extremi-  ' 

ties  of  the  Tadpole  show 
themselves,  and  are  developed 
little  by  little,  (FiVy.  32.)  ;  they 
attain  considerable  length  be- 
fore the  anterior  extremities 
are  perceived.  The  latter  are 
developed  beneath  the  skin, 
which  they  penetrate  at  a  later 
period,  (Fig.  33.)  About  the 

fi.  What  reptiles  compose  the  family  of  Anoura  ?      What  changes  do  the 
animals  of  this  family  undergo  in  early  life?     What  is  a  Tddpole  ? 


FAMILY  OF  AXOURA. 


same  time,  the  horny  beak  falls  off,  leaving  the 
jaws  unencumbered  ;  the  tail  begins  to  waste 
away,  (Fig.  34.)  the  lungs  are  developed,  and, 
in  proportion  as  these  organs  become  more  ex- 
clusively the  seat  of  respiration,  the  branchiae 
fade  and  disappear;  the  cartilaginous  arches 
,which  supported  them  are  also  in  part  absorbed  ; 
Fig.  35.  anc*  finally  the  tail  entirely  disappears.  The 
little  animal  assumes  the  form  which  it  preserves 
through  life,  and  completely  changes  its  regimen, 
(Fig.  35.)  From  being  at  first  herbivorous,  it 
graduafiy  becomes  exclusively  carnivorous,  and 
in  proportion  as  this  metamorphosis  advances, 
the  intestinal  canal,  from  being  long,  slender,  and 
spirally  folded,  becomes  short,  almost  straight  and  swelled,  to 
form  the  stomach  and  colon. 

7  The  period  of  these  changes  varies,  from  about  four  to  eight 
weeks,  according  to  the  species,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
different  circumstances  may  considerably  hasten  or  retard,  the 
complete  metamorphosis  of  the  young  animal.  A  deficiency  of 
heat  and  light,  very  much  prolongs  the  duration  of  the  tadpole 
state. 

8.  Having  reached  their  perfect  state,  the  Anoura  cease  to  be 
aquatic  animals;  but  most  of  them  continue  to  live  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  water  and  dive  frequently  in  it.    They  cannot  remain, 
during  the  warm  season,  constantly  in  the  water,  even  though 
they  come  freely  to  the  surface  to   breathe  the   air  ;  pulmonary 
respiration  is  not  then  sufficient  for  them,  and   they  require  the 
action  of  the  air  on  the  skin  ;  in  winter,  however,  this  cutaneous 
respiration  is  not  only  sufficient  to  sustain   life,   but   they  can 
remain  several  months  in  the  water  without  coming  into  the  air. 

9.  All  these  reptiles   have  a  thick-set  body,  a  flat  head,  the 
muzzle  more  or  less  rounded,  a  very  wide  mouth,  short  fore  feet 
terminated  by  four  toes,  and  the  hind  feet  are  longer,  and  some- 
times possess  the  rudiment  of  a  sixth  toe.     Their  eyes  are  ordi- 
narily furnished  with  three  lids,  but  sink  into  the  head,  on  slight 
pressure;  because  the  orbits  art  separated  from  the  mouth  only 
by  membranes.     A  cartilaginous  plate  occupies  the    place  of  a 
tympanum,  and  causes  the  ear  to  show  externally.     The  tongue 

7.  Is  the  time  occupied  in  these  changes  the  same  in  all  species  of  Anoura7 
What  circumstance  influences  the  time  occupied  in  the  metamorphosis? 

8.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Anoura?     Is  respiration  carried  on  exc.V 
'gively  by  the  lungs? 

9.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Anoura  ?   How  do  they  breathe  ? 
What  is  peculiar  about  the  tongue? 


FROGS.— TREE-FROG^. 7 A 

is  generally  soft,  and,  contrary  to  what  we  see  in  most  mammals, 
it  is  fixed  to  the  edge  of  the  jaw  only  by  its  anterior  extremity, 
so  that  it  can  be  folded  backwards,  or  turned  out  of  the  mouth. 
Finally,  the  skeleton  of  these  reptiles  (  /*ty/.  29,  Page  58.)  is  entirely 
unprovided  with  ribs,  and  the  inspiration  of  air  can  be  effected  only 
by  a  movement  analogous  to  that  of  deglutition,  in  which  the 
animal  dilates  the  throat  to  fill  it  with  air;  then,  closing  the  poste- 
rior nostrils  with  the  tongue,  contracts  the  muscles  of  the  swallow, 
and  forces  this  fluid  to  enter  the  lungs :  to  throw  one  of  these 
animals  into  a  state  of  asphyxia,  it  is  only  necesskry  to  keep  the 
mouth  open  for  a  certain  time. 

10.  The  FROGS, —  liana,—  have  the  body  more  tapering  than 
the  other  Anoura;  the  hind  feet  are  very  long,  very  strong,  and 
more  or  less  palmate,  which  enables  them  to  swim  and  leap  well 
The  skin  is  smooth,  and  the  males  have  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
beneath  the  ears,  a  thin  membrane  which  becomes  inflated,  when 
they  croak.     They  are  distinguishable  from  toads  by  a  row  of 
very  fine,  small  teeth,  all  around  the  upper  jaw.     These  reptiles 
ordinarily  keep  on  the  banks  of  ponds  and  rivulets,  and  precipi- 
tate themselves  into  the  water  on  the  slightest  danger :  they  feed 
only  on  living  prey,  and  eat  the  larva  of  aquatic  insects,   worms, 
small  mollusks,  and  flies.     In  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud,  or  in  holes,  and  do  not  eat. 

1 1.  We  give  the  name  of  TREE-FROGS, —  Hyla, — to  Batrachians 
which  do  not  differ  much  from  frogs,  except  that  the  extremity  ot 
each  one  of  the  toes  is  enlarged,  and  rounded  into  a  sort  of  viscous 
pellet  or  ball,  (/%.  36.)  that       p. 

enables  them  to  adhere  to 
bodies  upon  which  they 
climb,  and  to  ascend  trees. 
Endowed  with  great  sup- 
pleness and  agility,  Tree- 
frogs  travel  very  lightly 
on  the  most  flexible  bran- 
ches. During  the  whole 
summer  they  live,  in  this 
manner,  on  trees,  pursuing 
insects;  but  in  winter  they 
retire  to  the  bottom  of  the  COMMON  TRKE-FROG. 

water  like  frogs,  and  do  not  return  again  to  the  humid  woods  in 
the  spring,  till  after  they  have  deposited  their  e<rgs.  The  common 

10.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Frogs?     How  are  they    dist.f>- 
guished  from  Toads  '     What  are  the  habits  of  Frogs? 
i  1.  What  are  Tree-Frogs  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 
2  M* 


72  TOA^S. 


Tree-frog, — Rana  arboreu^ — is  of  an  apple  green  above,  and  pale 
beneath,  with  a  black  and  yellow  line  along  each  side  of  the  body. 

12.  The  TOADS, —  Bufo,—  have  a  thick-set  body,  covered  with 
warts,  or  papillae,  from  which  exudes  a  viscid   humor;  on   each 
side  of  the  neck  there  is  a  large,  projecting  gland,  (called  parotid,} 
full  of  pores,  which  secretes  an  acrid   humor.     Their   hind   legs 
are  not  so  much  elongated  as  those  of  frogs,  and  they  leap  badly ; 
in  general  they  creep  rather  than   walk,  and,   when  surprised, 
instead  of  taking  to  flight,  they  stop  suddenly  and   inflate   the 
body  so  as  to  render  it  hard  and  elastic,  and  cause  the  skin   to 
pour  out  a  white  humor;  sometimes  they  endeavour  to  defend 
themselves  by  biting;  but  their  mouth  is  unprovided  with  teeth, 
and  their  bite  is  not  venomous,  as  is  generally  supposed   in  the 
country.     These  hideous  and  disgusting  reptiles  ordinarily  con- 
ceal themselves  in  shady,  humid  places,  from  which  they  do  not 
go  out,  except  at  night,  or  immediately  after  the  warm  and  abun- 
dant rains  of  summer.     Like  frogs,  they  feed  on  small  mollusks, 
worms,  and  living  insects,  but  they  are  more  terrestrial  in  their 
habits;  they  betake  themselves,  in  summer  only,  to  pools  and 
streams,  where  the   females  resort   to   deposit  their   eggs.     In 
countries  where  the  winter  is  cold,  they  pass  the  season  benumbed 
in  holes.      Their  respiration  then    becomes    extremely   limited, 
and  the  contact  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  air   with  the  skin  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  their  existence.     When  placed  in  situations 
where  ordinary  evaporation  is  very  inconsiderable,  they  can  live 
in  this  way  for  a  very  long  time.     This  explains  how  it  is  that 
toads,  which  have  been  enclosed  in  plaster,  or  shut  up  in  holes, 
excavated  in  stones,  are  often  found  alive,  after   being  many 
months  in  confinement 

13.  Curious  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  of  ascer- 
taining the  fact,  (which  had  been  often  observed,  but   generally 
treated   as  fabulous    by   naturalists,)  of  the  existence  of  living 
toads  in  walls,  in  hollow  trees,  and  even  in  the  interior  of  rocks, 
where  they  had  probably  remained  for  years,  without  being  able 
to   escape.     Labourers    who  work  in   quarries  have  often  met 
similar  instances,  on  breaking  blocks  of  stone,  and  they  pretend 
that  the  toad  is  found  enclosed  in  the  stone  on  all  sides,  as  in  a  solid 
mould,  which  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  had  formed  around 
the  body,  and  that  the  seclusion  of  the  reptile  dated  from  a  very 
remote  antiquity ;  but  this  opinion  is  inadmissible,   and   every 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  Toads?     How    are  they  distinguished 
from  Frogs  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

13.  How  is  it  that  Toads  are  enabled  to  exist,  excluded  from  the  atmos- 
pneric  air,  shut  up  in  rocks,  hollow  trees,  &c.7 


PIPAS.— URODELA.  73 


thing  leads  us  to  believe,  that  in  such  cases,  the  retreat  of  the 
toad  communicates  externally  by  some  hole  which  had  been 
accidentally  closed,  or  had  escaped  observation. 

14.  The  PIPAS  are  still  more  hideous  than  the  toads:  their  body 
is  more  flattened,  the  head  triangular,  their  eyes  very  small,  their 
hind  legs  short,  and  their  anterior  toes  split  at  the  end  into  three 
or  four  small  points;  the  tongue  is  entirely  wanting.  The  species 
best  known,  which  inhabits  the  warm  and  humid  parts  of  South 
America,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  its 


Fig.  37 


young  are  developed.  The  male  places  the  eggs  on  the  back  of 
the  female,  who  immediately  takes  to  the  water,  where  the  skin, 
irritated  by  the  contact  of  these  bodies,  swells,  and  forms  cells, 
in  which  the  young  are  hatched,  and  remain  until  they  have 
completed  their  metamorphosis ;  then  the  mother  returns  to  land. 

FAMILY  OF  URODELA. 

15.  The  metamorphosis  of  Batrachians  of  this  family  is  less 
complete  ;  for,  in  the  perfect  state,  they  still  preserve  the  long 
tail,  which,  in  the  preceding  family,  only  exists  in  the  tadpole. 
At  the  time  of  escaping  from  the  egg,  they  are  without  feet,  and 
respire  by  branchiae,  which  are  in  the  form  of  tufts,  and  three  in 
number;  they  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  float 
externally.  As  in  the  Anoura,  their  extremities  appear  succes- 
sively, but  the  fore  feet  make  their  appearance  before  the  poste- 
rior;  and,  to  complete  the  transformation  of  the  tadpole,  the 
lungs  are  developed,  and  the  branchiae  disappear.  In  the  adult 
state,  these  animals  have  nearly  the  same  form  as  lizards ;  but 
their  head  is  flattened,  and  we  do  not  perceive  the  tympanum 


,4.  What  arc  the  characters  of  Pipas  ? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Urodela  ? 

6        v 


74 TRITONS.— SALAMANDERS. 

externally.  Both  jaws,  and  the  palate  are  armed  with  small  teeth  ; 
their  tongue  is  placed  as  it  is  in  frogs ;  the  skeleton  has  rudimen- 
tary ribs  ;  and  the  number  of  their  toes  is  four  in  front,  and 
almost  always  five  behind.  Some  authors  designate  these  animals 
under  the  name  of  Satawanders. 

16.  TRITONS,  or  Aquatic  Salamanders,  are  the  most  common 
batrachians  of  the  family  of  Urodela;  they   always   preserve  a 
laterally  compressed  tail,  (Fig.  38.)  and  pass  nearly  all  their  time 

_,.  in    the    water.     The 

*  *9-  °8'  most  remarkable  fac- 

ulty possessed  by 
these  reptiles,  is  the 
astonishing  facility, 
with  which  they  re- 
pair any  mutilation 

CRF.STF.D    SALAMANDER,    OR    TRITON.  {Q      Wj-)ich     they     may 

be  subjected.  They  not  only  replace  the  tail  after  it  has  been 
cut  off,  as  is  the  case  also  with  lizards,  but  their  extremities  are 
reproduced  in  the  same  manner.  The  same  extremity,  after 
having  been  cut  off,  has  been  reproduced  entire  with  its  bones, 
its  muscles,  its  vessels  and  nerves,  several  times  in  succession, 
and  we  are  even  assured  that,  in  one  experiment,  the  eye,  after 
having  been  extirpated,  was  reproduced  in  the  space  of  a  year. 

17.  Several  species  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris. 
Sometimes  the  tadpoles  become  very  large  before  losing  their 
bra-nchia3.     A  fossil,  found  in  the  schists  of  (Eningen,  and    be- 
longing to  a  large  species  of  Salamander,   has   excited   a   good 
deal  of  interest;  because,  from  a  singular  error,  it  was  for  a  long 
time  regarded  as  the  skeleton  of  a  fossil  man. 

18.  SALAMANDERS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  or  TERRESTRIAL  SALA- 
MANDERS in  the  perfect  state,  have  a  round  tail,  and  only  remain 
in  the  water  during  their  tadpole  existence,  or  when    they   lay. 
Their  eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid,  and    the  young  at 
first  have  a  compressed  tail  like  ordinary  tadpoles;  they  lose  the 
tail,  and  finish  their  metamorphosis  very  promptly.    In  the  perfect 
state,  they  inhabit  shady,  humid  situations :  they  are  ordinarily 
found  under  stones,  or  in  subterraneous  holes.     It  was  for  a  long 
time  believed  that  Salamanders  had  the  power   of  resisting  the 
action   of  fire;  but  this  fable  was  without   foundation;  except, 
oerhaps,  that  when  the  reptile  is   irritated,   it  sweats   a   milky 

16.  What  are  Tritons?     For  what  are  they  remarkable? 

17.  What  led  to  the  helief  that  a  fossil  man  had  been  discovered? 

18.  What  are  Salamanders  properly  so  called  ?     How    ure    they    dist'n 
guished  from  Tritons  ? 


BRANCHIFERA.— AXOLOTLS.  75 


humor.  This  humor  appears  to  be  poisonous  to  feeble  animals, 
but  the  Salamander  is  not,  as  is  supposed  among  certain  country 
people,  an  injurious  animal. 

19.  There  has  been  discovered  in  America,  a  large  batrachian, 
of  the  precise  form  of  the  Salamander,  that  has  an  orifice  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  but  which,  it  is  supposed,  never  has  branchiae.    It 
is  probable,  however,that  these  organs  do  exist  in  the  first  periods 
of  life,  but  disappear  at  an  early  date,  as  is  the  case  in  the  terres- 
trial Salamander.  These  reptiles,  which  (orm  the  genus  MENOPOMA, 
inhabit  the  great  lakes  and  rivers  in  the  interior  of  South  America, 
The  AMPHIUMA,  which  inhabit  the  same  continent,    possess    the 
same  mode  of  organization  ;  but  their  body  is  excessively  elon- 
gated, and  their  extremities  are  but  little  developed.     The  number 
of  their  toes  varies  from  two  to  three,  according  to  the  species. 

FAMILY  OF  BRANCHIFERA. 

20.  This  family  is  composed  of  batrachians  that  always   pre- 
serve their  branchiae,  and  resemble  thfe  tadpoles  of  batrachians 
of  the  family  of  Urodela ;  they  have  been  regarded    for  a   long 
time  as  being  in  fact,  the  young  of  some  large  species   of  Sala- 
mander ;  but  now,  there  is  no  doubt  of  their  being  perfect  ani- 
mals, and  what  is  very  remarkable,  that  possessing  well  developed 
branchiae,  they  also  have  lungs,  and  are  consequently  completely 
amphibious.     These  branchiae,  which  are  placed  in  the  ordinary 
situation,  have  the  form  of  tufts  more  or  less  ramified,  and  float 
externally  in  the  water.     The  lungs  are  sometimes  provided  with 
a  vascular  net  work  as  well  developed  as  in  any  reptile,  while  hi 
others,  their  structure  is  very  simple.     The  body  of  these  animals 
terminates  in  a  long,  vertical  tail ,  and  their  extremities  are  but 
little  developed,  and  often  are  partly  wanting.     Four  genera  are 
known,  namely  ;  the  Jlxolotus,  the   Menobranchus,  the  Proteus, 
and  the  Siren. 

21.  The  AXOLOTLS, —  rfxololus,  —  in  every    respect   resemble 
the  tadpoles  of  Salamanders, 

that  have  acquired  their  fore 
paws.  Only  a  single  species 
has  yet  been  discovered,  the 
Jlxoloil  of  the  Mexicans, — 
Siren  pisciforniis,  (f*iy.  39.) 
which  inhabits  the  lake  in  the 
midst  of  which  stands  the 
city  of  Mexico.  AXOLOTL. 

19.  What  are  Monopoma?     What  are  Amphiuma? 

20.  What  are  Rrarichifera?     What  are  their  general  characters?     What 
are  ihe  genera  of  this  family  ? 

21.  What  :m  tiio  characters  of  the  Axololls? 


7f.  PROTEANS.— SIRENS.—  \PODA. 

Fiy.  40.  22.  The  MENOBRANCHUS,  also  have  four  feet ;  but  in 
stead  of  having  four  toes  before,  and  five  behind,  they 
have  only  four  throughout. 

23.  The  PIIOTEANS, —  Proteus, — have  but  three  toes  in 
front  and    two  behind       The   only  -species   known,— 
Proteus  atuininnSi — (Fig.  40.)  more  than  a  foot  long,  and 
only   as  thick   as    the  finger,  is   found    in    the   subter- 
raneous waters  of  some  of  the  caverns  of  Oarniole.     Its 
skin  is  smooth  and  whitish,  its  muzzle  is  elongated  and 
depressed,  and  its  eyes  are  exceedingly  small,  and  con- 
cealed  beneath  the  integuments. 

24.  The  SIRENS,  have  anterior  extremities  only,  and, 
in    the  elongated    form   of  their   body,   resemble    eels. 
Three  species  are  known,  one   of  which   attains    three 
feet  in  length,  and  inhabits  the  marshes  of  Carolina. 

O  FAMILY  OF  APODA. 

25.  The  APODA,  or  CECILIA,  as  we  have  already   stated,   are 
entirely  without  extremities,  and,  until  lately,  have  been  regarded 
as  Serpents ;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that,  in  early  life,  they 
have  branchiae  which  show  themselves  through  a  hole  on  each 
side  of  the  neck.     In  the  adult  animal  we  find  even  the  arches  of 
the  hyoid  bone,  which  served  to  sustain  these  organs.     The  body 
is  very  nearly  cylindrical.     The  skin  is  smooth  and  transversely 
furrowed  by  annular  wrinkles.     At  first  sight,  it  appears   to   be 
entirely  naked  ;  but  on  dissection,  we  find  in  its  thickness  rows  of 
small  and  extremely  thin  scales,  situate  in  these  wrinkles.     The 
eyes  which  are  very  small,  are  concealed  beneath  the  common 
integuments,  and  sometimes  they  are  entirely    wanting.     These 
animals  are  completely  apodous,  that  is,  without   feet,  and  their 
skeleton,  like  that  of  serpents,  has  two  long  rows  of  ribs ;  but 
these  bones  are  much  too  short  to  surround  the  trunk,  and,    on 
the  other  hand,  we  remark,  in  the  mode  of  articulation    of  the 
vertebraB,  and  in  the  disposition  of  their  jaws,  many   characters 
which  approximate  them  to  the  latter  batrachians. 

26.  These  reptiles,  which  establish  a  passage  between  the  batra- 
chians and  Ophidians,  inhabit  humid  and  shady  places,  dig  holes 
in  the  ground,  and  seem  to  feed  on  vegetable  substances  as  well 
as  on  worms  and  small  insects.    They  are  found  in  South  America. 

The  CLASS  OP  FISHES  comes  next  in  order. 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  Batrachians  of  the  genus  Menobranchus  ? 

y.3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Proteans  ? 

24.  What  are  Sirens? 

2.>.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Apoda  ? 

26.  Where  are  they  found?     What  are  their  habits? 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


LESSON    V. 

CLASS  OF  FISHES.  —  Genera/  Characters.  —  Form.—  Integuments.— 
Skeleton.  —  Muscular  Apparatus.  —  Swimming-  Bladder.  — 
Senses.  —  Apparatus  of  Diyestion.  —  Circulation.  —  Itespira- 
tion.  —  JJniwcil  Electricity.  —  Habits  —  Fishiuy  —  Classification. 

CLASS    OF    FISHES. 

The  fourth,  and  last  Class  of  the  Branch  of  Vertebrate  Ani- 
mals, comprises  the  Fishes  :  that  part  of  Natural  History  which 
treats  of  them,  is  termed  Ichthyology,  from  the  Greek,  iclitkus,  a 
fish,  and  luyos,  a  discourse. 

1.  These  animals,  as  every  body  knows,  are  destined  to  live 
under  water,  and  this  circumstance  has  impressed  upon  them  a 
peculiar  organization  ;  but  the  most  important  differences  they 
present,  when  compared  with  other  vertebrata,  consist  in  the 
conformation  of  the  apparatuses  of  respiration    and  circulation. 
They  never  have  lungs,  and  always  breathe  by  branchiae  only. 
Their   heart  has   but  two  cavities,   and  only  receives    venous 
blood,  which,  after  being  in  contact  with  oxygen,  enters  a  dorsal 
vessel,    where  no  new   motive  force   accelerates  its  course  to 
different  parts  of  the  body.     Therefore,  their  circulation  is  not 
as  active  as  it  is  in  the  superior  animals,  and  like  that  of  reptiles, 
their  blood  is  cold.     Their  skin  is  naked,  or  covered  with  scales 
only  ;  they  have  no  mamma3  like  the  mammalia,  and  are  repro- 
duced by  the  means  of  eggs  ;  their  extremities  are  in  the  form  of 
fins. 

2.  The  external  form  of  fishes  varies;  but  their  body  is  gene- 
rally all  of  a  piece.     The  head,  which  is  of  the  same  size  of  the 
trunk,  is  not  separated  from  it  by  a  narrowing  like  the  neck  of 
the  superior  vertebrate  animals,  and  the  tail,  owing  to  its  size  at 
the  base,  is  not  distinguishable  from  the  rest  of  the  body.    Some 
of  these  animals  are  entirely  without  fins  ;  but  in  most  of  them 
we  find  a  considerable  number  of  these  organs,  some  placed  on 
the  middle  line  of  the  back  or  belly,  and  consequently   unpaired 
or  singly,  and  others  on  the  side,  arranged  in  pairs.     The  latter 

1.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Fishes?     What  is  the  peculiarity 
f  their  respiration  '!     How  does  their  heart  differ  from  th.it  of  mammals  7 

2.  What  is  the  greneral  form  of  Fishes  ?     What  is  the  situation   of  the 
pectoral  fins  ?     Where  are  the  ventral  fins  placed  ?     What  are  dorsal  fins  7 
What  is  the  situation  of  the  anal  fin  ?     What  are  the  caudal  fins? 


78 STRUCTURE  OF  FISHES. 

represent  the  extremities  of  other  vertebrate  animals,  the  ante- 
rior extremities  which  correspond  to  the  arm  in  man,  and  the 
wing  in  birds,  are  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  trunk,  immediately 
oehind  the  head,  and  are  called  pectoral  fins,  (Fig-  41,  «.)  The 
abdominal  extremities  (6.)  less  distant  from  each  other,  generally 

occupy  the  inferior 
face  of  the  body, 
and  may  be  placed 
P  more  forward  or 
J  backward,  from  be- 
^^"  neath  the  throat  to 
the  origin  of  the 
tail :  they  are  called 
ventral  Jins.  The 
single  or  unpaired 
fins  occupy,  as  we  have  just  said,  the  middle  line  of  the  body, 
and  are  distinguished  into  first  dorsal,  (c.)  second  dorsal,  (d.) 
anal,  (e.)  and  caudal  fins,  (f.}  according  to  their  situation  on  the 
back,  under  the  tail,  or  at  its  extremity.  They  are  all  nearly  of  the 
same  structure,  and  almost  always  consist  of  a  fold  of  the  skin, 
sustained  by  bony  or  cartilaginous  rays,  very  much  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  wings  of  bats  and  dragons  are  sustained  by  the 
fingers  or  toes,  or  by  the  ribs  of  those^animals. 

3.  We  also  observe  on  the  external  surface  of  the  body,  large 
slits  placed,  on  each  side,  immediately  behind  the   head,    which 
serve  as  an  outlet  to  the  water  which  has  laved  the  branchia?: 
they  are  openings  of  the  gills.     Generally,  there  is  but  one  on  each 
side,  and  their  anterior  edge  is  moveable,  and  resembles  a  shutter. 
Along  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  on  each  side,  there  is  a  series 
of  pores  which  form  what  ichthyologists  call  the  lateral  line. 

4,  The  skin  is  sometimes  nearly  naked,  but  is  almost  always 
covered  with  scales.     Sometimes  these  scales  are  in  the  form  of 
rough  grains ;  sometimes  they  are  very  stout  tubercles,  or  plates 
of  considerable  thickness ;  but,  in  general,  they  are   very  thin 
lamellae,  covering  each  other  like  shingles  or  tiles,  and    let   into 
folds  of  the  skin.     They  may  be  compared  to  our  nails  ;  though 
they  contain  more  calcareous  salts.  The  colours  with  which  these 
animals   are  adorned,   are  astonishing  in  their  variety  and  bril- 
liancy.  Sometimes  they  can  only  be  compared  to  the  most  glitter- 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  41  — A  common  Perch, — a.  the  pectoral  fin  of  one 
side,— b.  ventral  fin, — c.  first  dorsal  fin,— d.  second  dorsal  fin, — e.anal  fin, — 
/.  caurial  fins. 

3.  What  are  the  gill  openings  ?     What  is  their  use  ?     What  is  meant  by 
the  lateral  line  ? 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skin?  What  is  the  nature  of  scales?  How 
do  they  obtain  their  colour  ? 


STRUCTURE:  OF  FISHES. TD 

ing  gold  or  silver  ;  sometimes  they  present  the  richest  tints  of 
green,  blue,  red,  or  black.  The  silvery  matter  which  frequently 
gives  them  such  a  beautiful  metallic  lustre,  is  secreted  by  the 
skin,  and  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of  small  polished  plates. 

5.  The  skeleton  of  fishes  is  ordinarily  bony ;  but  in  many  of 
these  animals,  it  always  remains  libro-cartilaginous,   or   cartila- 
ginous, and  in  some,  this  frame  possesses  even  less  solidity  and 
remains  absolutely  membranous.     In  this  respect,  they  form  the 
connecting  link  or  passage  between  the  vertebrate  and  inverte- 
brate animals. 

6.  The  bones  never  have  a  medullary  canal,  and  the  cartilage 
which  constitutes  their  basis  is  not  like   that   of  mammals  and 
birds  ;  for,  when  boiled  in  water,  it  does  not  yield  gelatine. 

7.  The  skeleton  is  composed  of  a  head,  to  which  is  joined   a 
highly  developed  hyoid   apparatus,  serving  for  respiration ;   a 
trunk  and  extremities. 

u 
Fig.  42.* 


SKELETON    OP    A    PERCH. 

8.  The  structure  of  the  head  is  very  complicated :  we  first 
observe  a  middle  portion,  composed  of  a  great  number  of  bones 
joined  together  by  sutures,  and  forming  a  sort  of  immoveable  keel 
to  which  are  suspended  the  bones  of  the  jaws,  cheeks,  &c.  This 

* Explanation  of  Fig.  42. — Skeleton  of  a  Perch: — a.  the  skull, — 6.  the 
orbit, — c.  the  nostrils, — d.  the  intermaxillary  bone, — e.  the  maxillary  bones, 
— /.  the  lower  jaw,— g.  the  sub-orbital  bone, — h.  the  tympanic  bone,  and  the 
oilier  bony  pieces  which  separate  the  mouth  from  the  cheeks,  and  support 
the  lower  jaw, — i.  the  operculum, — j.  the  ante-operculum  bone, — I.  the 
scapula,  or  shoulder  blade, — m.  the  bones  of  the  arm, — n.  the  coracoid  bone, 
— o.  the  pectoral  fin, — p.  the  pelvis,—  q.  the  ventral  fin, — r.  the  vertebrae, — 
s.  the  ribs, — 1.  the  interspinal  bone?, — u.  the  bony  spine  of  the  first  dorsal 
fin, — r.  the  cartilaginous  spine  of  the  second  dorsal  fin, — x.  the  anal  fin, — 
y.  the  caudal  fin. 

5.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  skeleton  of  fishes  1 

6  What  is  the  character  of  the  bones  of  fishes?  How  does  fish-bone 
differ  from  that  of  mammals? 

7.  How  is  the  skeleton  of  fishes  divided  ? 

8.  What  are  the  general  characters  nf  the  head  ? 

2N 


81- 


STRUCTURE  OF  FISflKS. 


mivivfle  portion,  the  form  of  which  is  that  of  a  pyramid  with  three 
sided,  with  its  summit  directed  forward,  presents  posteriorly  the 
cranial  box,  or  skull,  (fig.  42,  «.)  in  which  is  lodged  the  appa- 
ratus of  hearing  as  well  as  the  brain.  Its  middle  part  is  hollowed 
out  to  form  the  orbits,  (b.)  and  in  front,  we  find  pits  which  be- 


Fig.  43. 


SKELETON    OF   A    PERCH. 

long  to  the  olfactory  apparatus,  (c.)  There  are  bones  which 
correspond  to  those  of  the  heads  of  mammals,  but  most  of  these 
bones,  in  fishes,  are  composed  of  several  pieces,  which  never 
run  together  into  one,  as  happens  at  an  early  ag3  in  the  mam- 
malia and  birds. 

9.  At  the  anterior  extremity  of  this  portion  of  the   head,  we 
find  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  sometimes   immoveable,   though  it 
generally  preserves  great  mobility :  on   each   side   there   is   an 
inter-maxillary   bone,   (</.)  placed    near  the  middle  line,  and  a 
lower  jaw  bone  which  extends  laterally,  and   moves   upon   the 
first.     Besides  these  parts,  we  find  a  very  considerable  apparatus 
designed  to  afford  attachment  to  the  branchiae,  or  to  protect  them, 
composed  in  part  of  the  hyoid  bone,  which   is  covered  on   each 
side  by  a  sort  of  cover  or  door,  called  opercufom,  (/.)  or  gill-cover. 

10.  The  vertebral  column,  (r.)  which  is  continuous  with  the 
head,  is  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  one   dorsal,  and  the 
other  caudal.     The  body  of  the  vertebrae  has  a  peculiar  form  ;  it 
is  hollowed  before  and  behind  by  a  conical  cavity  ;  these   two 
hollow  spaces  are  sometimes  joined  so  as  to  form  a  hole,  and  the 
double  conical  cavity  arising  from  the  junction  of  two  neighbour- 
ing vertebrae,  is  filled  by  a  soft  substance.     The  ring,  destined  to 
form  a  passage  for  the  spinal  marrow,  is  surmounted  by  a  spinous 
process,  and  on  each  side  there  is  a  more  or  less  distinct  trans- 
verse  process,  which,  over  the  cavity  of  the   abdomen,   extends 
outwardly,  and  articulates  with  the  corresponding  rib,  but  in  the 

9.  Is  the  upper  jaw  moveable  or  not?     What  is  the  operculum  ? 
10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  vertebrae  in  fishes? 


STRUCTURE  OF  FISFTE^ 81 

caudal  portion  of  the  spine,  it  is  directed  downwards,  and  often 
forms,  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  a  ring1,  from  the  lower 
part  of  which  arises  a  long  spinous  process,  similar  to  that  which 
is  situate  on  the  dorsal  face  of  the  vertebra. 

11.  The  ribs  are  sometimes  wanting;  at  other  times,   they 
encircle  the  whole  abdomen,  and,  in  a  small   number   of  fishes, 
they  are  fixed  to  a  series  of  unpaired    or  single    bones,    which 
should  be  regarded  as  the   sternum.     They   frequently   sustain 
one  or  two  stylets  which  have  an  outward  direction,  and    pene- 
trate the  flesh.     Sometimes  there  are  similar  stylets  arising  from 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebra,  and  hence  it  is  that,  in  certain  genera, 
such  as  herrings,  fish-bones  become  so  numerous. 

12.  On  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  we  also   find   a  certain 
number  of  bones,  called  intvrtpiiwl,  (Fig.  43,  /.;    which  gene- 
rally rest  upon  the  ends  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
and,    by   their  opposite  ex-  ,v      .. 

tremities,  articulate  with  the 
rays  of  the  middle  fins,  (//.) 
These  rays   are   sometimes 
pointed  bones,  called  stiuys, 
or  spines ;    sometimes  they 
are   stalks   or   stems    bony 
only  at  the  base,   formed    of 
a  multitude  of  small  articu- 
lations in  continuation,   and  INTKRSPINAI.  BONES. 
often  branched  towards  the  end.     These   last   appendages  are 
called  ,vo/>,  or  articulated  rays:  they  always  form   the   caudal 
fin,  and  sometimes  there  are  no  others. 

13.  The   lateral  fins,    which    represent   the    extremities,  are 
terminated    by    rays   similar  to  those  of  the  vertical  fins,   and 
analogous  to  fingers.     At  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin  we  find  a 
series  of  from  four  to  five  small  flat  bones,  comparable  to  the 
bones  of  the  carpus,  which,  in  their  turn,  are  attached  to   two 
flat  bones  which  seem  to  be  the  radius  and  ulna  enlarged     This 
apparatus  is  supported  on  a  species  of  bony  belt,  situate   imme- 
diately behind  the  gills,  and  on  which  the  operculum  applies:  it 
consists  of  a  series  of  three  bones,  extending  from  the  cranium 
to  the  hyoid  apparatus,  and  supports  posteriorly  a  long  stylet. 
The  principal  piece  that  enters  into  its  composition  is  that  which 
supports  the  fore-arm,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  humerus, 
(See  Fig.  42,  1'aye  80.)  :  it  joins  below  with  that  of  the  opposite 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  ribs  ? 

12.  What  are  the  interspinal  bones  ?     What  are  the  rays  of  the  fins  ? 

13.  What  parts  of  fishes  represent  the  extremities  of  mammals  ? 


STRUCTURE    OF   FISHES. 


side,  and  with  a  middle  prolongation  of  the  hyoid  apparatus,  and 
is  attached  to  the  cranium  through  the  medium  of  two  bones, 
which  Cuvier  considers  analogous  to  the  scapula;  finally,  the 
stylet  which  arises  from  it,  and  is  prolonged  backwards  upon  the 
ribs,  is  ordinarily  formed  of  two  pieces,  and  may  be  compared 
to  a  coracoid  bone. 

14.  The  posterior  extremity  is  less  complicated;  the  rays  or 
the  ventral  fin  are  supported  by  a  single  bone,  generally  trian- 
gular, which  often  becomes  attached  in  front,  to  the  middle 
junction  of  the  bony  belt  of  tire  pectoral  extremity,  and  at  other 
times  it  is  merely  suspended  in  the  flesh. 

15  In  cartilaginous  fishes,  the  arrangement  of  the  skeleton 
differs  from  what  has  just  been  described.  The  head  especially, 
is  much  more  simple  in  its  structure. 

16.  The  muscular  apparatus  is  composed  of  muscles  destined 
to  flex  the  vertebral  column  laterally,  and  also  to  move  the  tail; 
they  form  the  largest  part  of  the  mass   of  the   body   of  fishes. 
By  striking  the  water  laterally,  by  alternate  flexions  of  the  trunk 
and  tail,  these  animals  communicate  to  their    body,    nearly   the 
whole  of  the  rapidity  they  have  in   swimming.     Their    vertical 
fins  serve  to  increase  the  extent  of  the  species   of  keel    or  oar 
they  form,  while  the  chief  use  of  the  pectoral  and  ventral   fins, 
in  general,  is  to  influence  the  direction  of  their  course,   and  to 
maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  animal. 

17.  A  peculiarity  of  their  organization,  which  is  of  great  assis- 
tance in  swimming,  is  the  existence  of  a  sort  of  pouch  filled  with 
air,  and  so  placed  that  it  can  be  compressed  at  will.     This  swim- 
ming, or  air-bladder,  which  is  placed  in  the  abdomen  beneath  the 
dorsal  spine,  ordinarily  communicates  with  the  oesophagus,    or 
stomach,  by  a  canal,  through  which  the  air  contained  in  it,  may 
escape  ;  but  this  fluid  does  not  seem  to  enter  by  that  route  ;  it  is 
produced  by  secretion,  the  seat  of  which  is  in  a  portion    of  the 
parietes  of  the  reservoir  itself,  which  is  of  a  glandular  structure. 
By  the    motions   of  the   ribs,  this  bladder  is  more  or  less  com- 
pressed, and,  according  to  its  volume,  it  gives  to  the  body  of  the 
fish,  a  specific  gravity,  equal,  superior  or  inferior  to  that  of  the 
water,  and  causes  it  thus  to  remain  in  equilibrium,  to  descend,  or 
ascend  in  this  liquid.     It  is  remarked   that  it  is  often    wanting, 
and  that  it  is  very  small  in  those   species  that  swim    near  the 
bottom,  or  bury  themselves  in  the  mud. 

14.  What  is  the  character  of  the  posterior  extremity  ? 

15.  Is  the  skeleton  the  same  in  all  fishes  1 

16.  By  what  means  do  fishes  move?     What  is  the  use  of  the  fins? 

17.  What  is  the  air  bladder  in  fishes?     What   is   the    source   of  the  air 
contained  in  it  ? 


STRUCTURE    OF    FISHED 85 

18.  In  a  small  number  of  fishes,  the  pectoral  fins  are  so  very 
much  developed,  as  to  enable  the  animal  to  sustain  itself  in  the 
air  for  a  few  moments,  when  it  springs  out  of  water.     There  are 
some  also,  that  by  crawling,  or  by  frequent  leaps,  are  capable  of 
progression  on  land.     It  is  asserted  that  some  can  climb  trees ; 
but  instances  of  this  kind,  are  very  rare. 

19.  Fishes  pass  their  lives  almost  entirely   in    providing   for 
their  subsistence,  or  in  escaping  from  their  enemies;  their   ex- 
ternal senses  seem  to  afford  them  only  very  duU  impressions,  and 
their  faculties  are  of  the  most  limited  character. 

20.  Fishes  are  very  stupid  animals;  they  have  no  remarkable 
intelligence  or  instinct,  and  their  brain,  (Fig   45,  t.)  is  but  liule 
developed  ;  it  does  not  entirely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  liquid  matter  of  a  fatty  nature. 

21.  The  ear  of  fishes,  in  general,  is  composed  only  of  a  sesti- 
bule,    surmounted  by  three  membranous   semi-circular  canals, 
suspended  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  on  each  side  of  the;  brain, 
and  to  which  waves  of  sound  are  communicated,  only  after  they 
have  set  in  vibration  the  common  integuments  and  bones  of  the 
cranium      Generally,  there  is  no  appearance  of  an  external  ear. 
Their  eyes  are  ordinarily  very  large,  and  are    unprovided   with 
true  eye  lids,  and  a  lachrymal  apparatus  ;  the  skin  which  covers 
them  is  transparent ;  and   the  iris  is  silvery  and  immoveable,  or 
nearly  so,  and  the  cornea  is  almost  flat,  the  pupil  is  very  large, 
and  the  chrystalline  lens  is  spherical.     The  nasal   fossae  do   not 
open  into  the  pharynx,  as  is  the  case  in  vertebrate  animals  that 
breathe  air.     The  tongue  is  never  truly  fleshy,  and  the  sens«  of 
taste   is  but  little  developed.     Tact  must  be  extremely  ovxuse. 
In  general,  the  skin  of  these  animals  is   entirely  covered    with 
scales  ;  sometimes,  however,  it  is  naked. 

22.  Ordinarily  fishes  are  very  voracious,  and  are   not   very 
particular  in  their  choice  of  food.     The  species  which  live  chiefly 
on   vegetables,  are  very  few  in  number;  they  are   almost  all 
carnivorous,  and  devour  each  other. 

23.  Fishes  sometimes  have  teeth,  not  only  in  the  jaws,  but  also 
in  all  the  bones  that  surround  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  that 
of  the  pharynx  ;  at  other  times  they  are  entirely  wanting.  These 
teeth  never  have  roots,  and  their  form  varies  very  much,  particu- 

18.  Are  fishes  capable  of  progression,  when  out  of  water  ? 

19.  Are  the  senses  of  fishes  very  acute? 

20.  What  is  the  character  of  the  brain  in  fishes  ? 

.   21.  What  is  the  character  of  the  ear  in  fishes  ?     What  are  the  peculiars 
ties  of  the  eye  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  nasal  fossae  ? 

22.  Upon  what  do  fishes  generally  feed  ? 

23.  What  is  the  character  of  the  teeth  of  fishes? 

2N* 


84  STRUCTURE    OF    FISHES. 


larly  those  that  are  found  on  the  pharyngeal  bones,  and  which 
serve  to  grind  the  food  when  on  its  way  to  the  oesophagus. 
They  have  no  true  salivary  glands  ;  the  oesophagus  is  very  short. 

P 


ff 


J 

ANATOMY    OF    A    PIKE 


24  The  other  viscera  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  (Fig.  45.) 
ure  lodged  in  the  abdomen,  which  is  lined  by  a  peritoneum,  and 
separated  from  the  cavity  containing  the  heart  by  a  sort  of 
diaphragm,  (s.)  In  some  fishes,  (chiefly  the  cartilaginous  fishes,) 
the  abdomen  communicates  externally  by  two  openings,  situate 
upon  the  sides  of  the  anus,  so  that  the  peritoneum  is  continuous 
with  the  skin. 

2.5.  The  stomach,  (i.)  is  in  general,  very  distinct;  that  part 
which  corresponds  to  the  large  intestine,  is  not  much  larger  than 
the  small  intestine;  and  there  never  is  a  coecum  as  in  mammals. 
The  liver,  (•«.)  is  generally  large,  and  of  a  soft  texture;  the 
position  and  size  of  the  gall-bladder,  (n  )  vary  ;  the  place  of  the 
pancreas  is  almost  always  supplied  by  two  tubes  of  a  peculiar 
tissue,  placed  around  the  pylorus  ;  the  position  of  the  anus  varies 
much  ;  sometimes  it  is  found  under  the  throat,  and  at  others,  at 
the  base  of  the  tail.  The  kidneys,  (p.)  are  very  voluminous,  and 
extend  along  both  sides  of  the  vertebral  column,  the  whole  length 
of  the  abdomen.  Their  excretory  ducts  terminate  in  a  sort  of 
bladder,  the  opening  of  which  is  posterior  to  the  anus. 

*Explnnatwn  of  Fig.  45. — Anatomy  of  the  viscera  of  a  Pike  : — a.  the 
nostrils, — />.  the  cavity  of  the  moulh, — c.  a  part  of  the  lower  jaw, — d.  the 
tongue, — e.  the  branchiae,  or  gills — f-  the  arch  of  the  palate,  or  roof  of  the 
mouth, — tr.  openings  through  which  <he  water  passes  from  the  mouth  to 
the  branchiae.—//,  the  oesophagus, — t.  the  stomich,— j.  the  intestine, — k. 
the  anus, — m.  the  liver, — n.  the  gall-bladder, — o  the  duct  of  the  gall-bladder, 
— p.  the  kidneys,—  q.  the  urinary  bladder, — r.  the  heart, — *.  the  diaphragm, 
t.  the  brain, — a.  the  spinal  marrow,— 0.  the  swimming-bladder  or  air 
vessel. 

24    Where  are  the  chief  organs  of  digestion  situate? 

25.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  digestive  organs? 


CIRCULATION    OF   FISHES. 85 

26.  Digestion  seems  to  be  carried   on   very   rapidly,   and  the 
chyle  is  absorbed  by  numerous  lymphatic  vessels,  which  empty, 
by  many  trunks,  into  the  venous  system,  near  the  heart. 

27.  The  blood  of  fishes  is  red;  the  globules  are  elliptical   in 
form,  and  of  considerable  size. 

28.  The  heart  (Fiy.  45,  r.)  is  placed  under  the  throat, in  a  cavity, 
separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  sort  of  diaphragm,  (*,)  (as  we 
have  just  said,)  and  protected  by  the  pharyngeal  bones  above,  by 
the  arches  of  the  branchiae  on  the  sides,   and   generally    by   the 
humeral  cincture  behind.     It  is  composed   of  an   auricle,     which 
receives  the  venous  blood  collected  in  a  large  sinus  (a  kind  of 
large  vein)  situated  near  it,  and  of  a  ventricle  placed  below,  and 
giving  origin,  at  its  anterior  extremity,  to  a  pulmonary   artery, 
the  base  of  which  is  inflated,  and  constitutes  a  contractile  bulb. 
This  vessel  soon  divides  into  lateral  branches,  which  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  gills,  and  the  blood,  after  traversing  these  organs, 
goes  to  the  head  through  another  vessel,  which  also  runs  along 
the   arches   of  the   branchiae.     There   these  canals  send  some 
branches  to  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  unite  to  form   a  great 
dorsal  artery,  which  is  directed  backwards,   beneath   the   spinal 
column,  and  sends  branches  to  all  other  parts  of  the  body.    But  all 
the  venous  blood  does  not  go  directly  into  the  sinus  mentioned 
above;  that   of    the   intestines,  and  some  other    parts,     before 
returning  to  the  heart,  is  carried  through  the  liver  by  the    vena 
porta. 

29.  We  see  now  that  the  blood,  in  passing  through  the  circu- 
latory circle,  entirely  traverses  the  respiratory  apparatus  as  in 
mammals  and  birds,  but  it  only  passes  o«o<?  tlirouyk  Ike  heart, 
which  must  render  its  progress  slower.     The  heart  itself  corres- 
ponds in  its  functions  to  the  right  half  of  the  same  organ  in  the 
superior  vertebrate  animals. 

30.  Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  the  air  which  is  always 
found  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  takes  place  on  the  surface  of  a 
multitude  of  very  vascular  and  projecting  lamellae,  attached   to 
the  external  edge  of  the  branchial  arches      Generally,  there  are, 
on  each  side,  four  branchiae    each  composed   of  two   rows   of 
elongated  lamellae.     In  most  of  the  cartilaginous  fishes  there  are 
five,  and,  in  the  lamprey,  we  find  seven.     In  almost  all  the  bony 

2fi    Ts  the  digestion  of  fishes  very  rapid? 

27.  What  is  the  character  of  the  blood  in  fishes  ? 

28.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  heart  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities   o! 
the.  circulatory  apparatus  in  fishes  ? 

29.  In  what  particulars  does  the  circulation  of  fisheg  differ  from  that  o' 
mammals  and  birds? 

30    Hew  is  respiration  effected  in  fishes  ? 
7 


Sb RESPIRATION  OF  FISHES. 

fishes,  these  lamellae  are  simple,  and  only  attached  at  their  base  ; 
in  a  small  number,  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  ramified,  and  in  the 
form  of  tufts;  finally,  in  most  cartilaginous  fishes,  they  are 
attached  to  the  skin  by  their  external  edge,  as  well  as  to  the 
arches  of  the  branchia3  by  their  internal  edge. 

31.  The  water  necessary  for  respiration  enters  the  mouth,  and, 
by  an  act  of  swallowing,  passes  through  the  slits,  left  between  the 
branchial  curves  or  arches,  and  in  this  way  reaches  the  branchiae, 
laves  their  surfaces,  and  then  escapes  through  the  openings  of  the 
gills.    We  see,  in  fact,  the  animal  open  its  nouth,  and  elevate  the 
operculum  alternately.     In  fishes,    in   whLh    the    branchiae    are 
free  on  their  external  edge,  one  of  these  openings  on  each  side 
is  sufficient ;  but,  when  the  branchiae  are  fixed,  there  is  required 
as  many   openings  as  there  are  spaces  betwixt  the  branchiae. 
Consequently,  we  are  made  acquainted  with  the  arrangement  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus  by   simply   inspecting    the    external 
openings. 

32.  Fishes  consume  a  very  moderate  quantity  of  oxygen,  some 
however,  are  not  content  with  what  is  dissolved  in   the   water, 
and  visit  the  surface,  from  time  to  time,  to  breathe  the  air.    There 
are  some  indeed  that  swallow  it,  and    by   causing    it   to   pass 
through  the  intestine,  convert   the   oxygen  into   carbonic   acid. 
When  fishes  remain  out  of  water,   they  generally    perish    very 
quickly  from  asphyxia,  not  for  the  want  of  oxygen,  but  because, 
the  branchial  lamella?,  being  unsustained  by  the  water,  are  effaced, 
and  do  not  permit  the  blood  to  pass  readily  through  them,  and 
because  these  organs,  by  drying,  become  unfitted  for  performing 
their  functions :  therefore,  those  fishes  that  perish  most  promptly 
from   exposure   to   the  air,   have  widely  open  gills,  which  facili- 
tates evaporation  from  the  branchiae,  while  those  that  resist  this 
exposure  best,  have  these  openings  very  narrow,  or  even  possess 
some  receptacle  in  which  they  preserve    water   for   moistening 
these  organs. 

33.  As  we  have  already  stated,  fishes   produce  scarcely  any 
heat:  but  some  of  them  possess  the  singular  faculty  of  producing 
electricity,  and  of  giving  very  powerful  shocks  to   animals    that 
touch  them.     The  Torpedo,  the  Silurus,  and  a  species  of  Gym- 
notus.  are  of  this  kind,  and  what  is  very  remarkable,  the  confor- 
mation of  the  electric  organ  differs  in  each  one  of  them. 

31.  How  do  the  gills  receive  the  supply  of  water  necessary  for  the  respira- 
tion of  fishes? 

32.  Do  fishes  require  a  large  quantity  of  oxygen  for  the  purposes  of  res. 
Duration  ?     Why  do  fishes  quickly  die  when  out  of  the  water? 

33.  Do  fishes  produce  much  animal  heat  ?  Do  all  fishes  possess  the  faculty 
tf  producing'  electricity? 


HABITS  OF  FISHES.  87 


34.  To   the   simultaneous   developement    of   an    incalculable 
number  of  eggs,  deposited  in  the  same  place,  and  the  instinct 
that  induces   different    fishes   to   follow   each    other,    we   must 
attribute  the  assemblage  of  certain  species,  in  immense  and  close 
legions,  called  by  fishermen,  skoal*  of  fisk.     In  fact,  we  cannot 
well  term  these  assemblages,  companies  or  societies ;  the   indi- 
viduals composing  them  do  not  aid  each  other;  from  having  the 
same  necessities  to  satisfy,  they    keep  in  the  same  locality,  or 
abandon   it,   and   if  we   sometimes   observe    one  among  \  ^em 
followed   as   a   leader,   it  probably  arises   from  a  tendency  to 
imitation  which  always  accompanies  the  first  da  wnings  of  reason. 

[  It  may  be  astonishing1  to  some  to  speak  of  the  reasoning  of  a  fish,  an 
animal  that  is  proverbial  for  its  stupidity;  but  if  we  study  the  habits  of 
these  beings  in  our  fish-ponds,  we  shall  see  that,  when  they  swim  tranquilly; 
without  any  determined  aim,  they  pass  side  by  side,  without  seeming  to  pay 
attention  to  the  motions  of  their  compvnions;  but,  if  one  of  them  suddenly 
perceiving  a  bait,  hastens  its  course,  and  swims  swiftly  in  a  determined 
direction,  we  frequently  observe  that  the  other  fishes,  even  those  that  are 
placed  so  as  not  to  perceive  the  object  of  attraction,  at  once  follow  in  the 
crowd  to  profit  by  the  discovery.  Now,  this  instinct  of  imitation  resembles 
simple  reasoning,  it  is  true,  hut  consecutive.  M  iy  we  not  suppose  that 
these  animals  attribute  the  rapid  coarse  of  their  companion  in  some  circum- 
stance of  a  nature  to  interest  them  also,  to  the  discovery  of  some  danger 
they  ought  to  avoid,  or  to  some  bait  he  rushes  to  devour,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  they  hasten  in  pursuit  '  And  is  not  this  the  c;ise  every  where,  even 
among  men  ;  and  is  not  the  instinct  of  imitation,  which  produces  so  many 
good  and  evil  actions,  a  consequence  of  this  tendency  to  profit  by  the  results 
of  the  observation  or  judgment  of  another,  and  to  attribute  to  the  actions  of 
those  who  seem  lo  be  moved  by  a  power.'ul  impulse,  an  object  that  it  would 
be  equally  desirable  for  all  to  attain  ?  ] 

35.  Whatever   it  may    be,  these  animals  thus  assembled  in 
troops,  often  make  long  voyages,  either  to  gain  the  open  sea,  or 
to  ascend  rivers,  or  to  change  their  latitude.     Certain  fishes  lead 
an  almost  sedentary  life,  and  always  remain  in  the  same  locality 
where  they  were  born  ;  others  are  always  roaming,  and  a  great 
many  of  these  animals  make  periodical  voyages   of  greater   or 
less  extent.     In  the  cold  season,  they    ordinarily    approach   the 
coast,  or  enter  rivers,  and  in   this    way   make  long  passages. 
Every  year,  about  the  same  period,  shoals   of  migratory  fishes 
arrive  in  the  same  places,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  many 
of  these  species  regularly  migrate  from  the   north    towards  the 
south,  and  from  the  south  towards  the  north,    pursuing  a  deter- 

34  Flow  do  you  account  for  those  vast  assemblages  of  various  kinds  of 
fish,  termed  Shoals  ? 

35.  Are  the  habits  of  all  kinds  of  fish  the  same  ?  Are  the  same  fishe» 
always  found  in  the  same  localities  ? 


83 REARING   OF   FISHES. _ 

mined  route ;  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to  believe  that 
when  they  disappear  from  the  shore,  they  only  retire  to  the  great 
depths  of  the  sea. 

36  According  to  their  habits,  fishes  are  divided  into  marine 
and  fluviatile;  there  are  some  too,  that  alternately  frequent  salt 
and  fresh  water,  and  the  nature  of  this  fluid  seems  to  exercise 
less  influence  upon  them  than  is  generally  believed  ;  for  some 
essentially  marine  fishest  have  been  successfully  reared  in  reser- 
voirs of  fresh  water. 

The  number  of  these  animals  is  immense,  and,  as  they  furnish 
man  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  aliment,  fishing  is  an  fmportant 
branch  of  industry  among  the  most  savage  as  well  as  among  the 
most  civilized  people. 

The  Romans,  who,  after  the  loss  of  their  liberty,  displayed 
such  boundless  luxiry  in  the  table,  did  not  confine  themselves  to 
sending  fishing  vessels  to  the  neighbouring  seas,  and  to  receiving 
fishes  from  the  lonians,  inventors  of  the  fish-car,  which  is  a  kind 
of  floating  reservoir  for  keeping  fish  alive;  but  better  to  secure 
the  supply,  the  wealthiest  citizens  constructed  immense  fish-ponds, 
filled  with  sea- water,  in  which  they  deposited  the  most  delicate 
fishes  of  Sioily,  and  even  of  Greece  and  Egypt.  The  first  person 
who  built  one  of  these  great  depots  was  Lucius  Muraena,  so 
named,  from  the  care  he  took  of  the  Muraena  or  eels:  he  had 
numerous  imitators,  and  was  even  surpassed  in  his  follies  by 
Lucullus,  who  cut  through  a  mountain  near  Naples,  to  introduce 
the  sea-water  into  his  ponds,  and  hollowed  the  rocks,  which  sur- 
rounded them,  into  caverns,  to  afford  his  fishes  a  cool  retreat 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  Other  great  personages  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  world,  prided  themselves  on  possessing  fishes  so 
tame  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be  touched ;  we  are  assured,  that 
C.'rassus  was  more  distressed  upon  losing  one  of  his  eels,  than 
upon  the  death  of  his  three  children;  and  history  relates  the 
curious  circumstance  of  a  Roman  lady  going  into  mourning  on 
account  of  the  death  of  a  favourite  Muraena :  to  give  an  idea  ol 
this  strange  taste  of  those  degenerate  Romans  for  fish  of  every 
kind,  we  will  mention  a  supper  given  to  the  Kmperor  Otho  by  his 
brother,  at  which  there  were  served  two  thousand  plates  of  rare 
fishes. 

"  Pliny  relates,  as  a  fact,  that  one  Vedius  Pollio,  a  particular 
friend  of  Augustus,  took  delight  in  throwing  his  slaves  in  the 
eel-vats,  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  torn  to  pieces  and 

3G.  What  is  the  division  of  fishes  according  to  their  habits  ?  Does  the 
quality  of  tne  water  whether  salt  or  fresh,  exercise  mlich  influence  upon 
fishes  ? 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    FISHED 


devoured  On  a  particular  occasion,  the  Emperor  honoured 
Pollio  with  his  company,  at  a  brilliant  entertainment,  at  which  a 
slave  unfortunately  happened  to  break  a  costly  crystal  vase. 
The  unfeeling  master,  in  a  paroxysm  of  fury,  exclaimed  to  the 
other  attendants, — "Away  with  him  to  the  Muraenae.'*  The  poor 
wretch,  almost  dead  with  horror,  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  Emperor, 
beseeching  that  he  might  be  permitted  to  die  some  death  less 
terrible !  Astonished  at  the  sudden  and  strange  circumstance, 
Augustus  made  speedy  inquiry  into  this  extraordinary  mode  ot 
punishment,  and  when  he  fully  understood  the  savage  cruelty, 
disposition,  and  practice  of  Pollio,  ordered  at  once,  all  the  remain- 
ing vessels  broken  before  his  face: — directed  the  reservoirs  to  be 
filled  up, — gave  freedom  to  the  plead  ing  slave,  and  only  consented 
to  spare  the  life  of  the  murderer,  his  master,  in  consideration  of 
his  former  regard." — Natural  History  <>f  the  Fiskes  of  Massa- 
chusetts, by  Jerome  V.  C.  Smith,  M.  D. 

Modern' times  have  not  witnessed  similar  follies;  but  neverthe- 
less, for  many  maritime  people,  fishing  has  not  been  the  less  a 
source  of  great  wealth.  At  one  period,  which  is  not  very  remote 
from  our  own,  this  branch  of  industrv  employed  one  fifth  of  the 
total  population  of  Holland,  and  in  the  herring  fishery  alone,  that 
country  covered  the  whole  North  Sea  with  her  vessels.  In 
England,  it  subsisted  a  co  isiderable  number  of  good  and  hardy 
sailors,  and  even  in  France,  where  it  is  of  less  importance,  there 
are  from  thirty  to  forty  thousand  fishermen,  about  one  third  of 
whom  venture  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Iceland  and  Newfoundland. 
And  in  the  United  States  a  very  large  number  of  people  derive 
their  living  from  the  various  fisheries. 

37.  The  immense  Cuss  OF  FISHES  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
series,  the  Osseous  and  Cartilaginous  fishes,  which  differ  from  each 
other,  not  only  in  their  skeleton,  but  also  in  a  great  number  of 
other  characters  The  modification  of  the  structure  of  the 
branchiae,  the  disposition  of  the  mouth,  and  the  nature  of  the 
tin-rays  that  sustain  the  dorsal  fin,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the 
ventral  fins,  furnish  naturalists^wilh  the  basis  for  the  division  of 
the  two  groups  into  orders,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
table : 

37.  What  is  the  first  division  of  the  Class  of  Fishes?  What  parts  o* 
these  animals  afford  the  means  or  basis  of  classifying  them? 

7* 


.on 


DIVISION    OF  THE  CLASS   OF    FISHES. 


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OSSEOUS   FISHES.  9i 


LESSON   VI. 

ORDER  OP  ACANTHOPTERYGIANS. — Family  of  Percoides,  (Perches, 
Rock-fish.}—  Family  of  Mulloides,  (Red  Mulcts,  Flying-fishes.) 

—  Family  of  Mailed- cheeks. — Family  of  Scienoides. — Family 
of  Sparoides. — Family  of  Menidts. — Family  of  Squamipennes. 

—  Family  of  Labyrintliiform  pharynyeals. — Family  of  Scorn,' 
beroides,  (  Mackerel. — Mackerel  Fishery . —  Tunny.  —  Sword* 
Fish,  Sec.) 

DIVISION    OP    OSSEOUS    FISHES. 
ORDER     OF    A  C  AN  T  H  O  P  T  E  R  YGI  I. 

1.  The  Order  of  Acanthopterygians  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
disposition  of  the  branchiae  and  upper  jaw,  and  by  the  spinous 
fins      Three  fourths  of  the  fishes  known,  belong  to  this  group; 
but  these  animals  resemble  each  other  in  so  very  many  respects, 
that  in  spite  of  the  numerous  differences  we  remark  among  them, 
we  can  only  separate  them  into  several  natural  families,   all    ol 
which  we  are  obliged  to  place  in  the  same  order 

2.  The  first  fin-rays  of  the  back  are  always  bony  and  spinous, 
(Fig.  46.)     When  there  are  two  dorsal  fins,  these  spinous  rays 
only   sustain  the   first;   and  p^Q  45 

when  there  is  but  one  of 
these  organs,  they  sustain  at 
least  its  anterior  portion; 
and  we  sometimes  find  them 
entirely  free  or  separate. 
Generally  there  is  also  a 
bony  ray  to  each  ventral 
fin,  and  frequently  the  anal 
fin  has  some  spines  for  its  first  rays. 

3.  This  order  is  divided  into  six  natural  families,   the   most 
remarkable  of  which  are,  the  Percoides,  the  Mulloides,  the  Mailed- 
cheeks,  the  Labyrinthiform  Pharyngeals  and  Scomberoides. 

4.  The  FAMILY  OF  PERCOIDES,  (or  fishes  that  resemble  a  Perch) 
is  composed  of  fishes  that  have  an  oblong,  more   or    less   com- 
pressed body,  covered  with  scales,  which  are  generally  hard ; 
the  mouth  large,  and  armed  with  teeth,  situate  upon  the  front  of 
the  vomer,  and  almost  always  on  the  palate  bones  as  well  as  the 
jaws,  the  branchial  arches  and  pharyngeal  bones  ;  the  operculum, 
or  the  bone  situate  immediately  anterior  to  it,  and  therefore  called 
pre-operculum,  or  ante-operculum,  is  dentate  or  spiny  on  its  edge  •, 

1.  How  is  the  Order  of  Acanthopterygians  distinguished  ? 
U.  WViat  is  the  character  of  their  dorsal  fins  ? 
3.  How  is  this  order  divided  ? 

2O 


PEACHES,—  ROCK-FISfT. 


and  the  fins  are  always  seven  or  eight  in  number.  They  have 
no  beards  upon  the  chin  ;  in  general,  they  are  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours,  and  their  flesh  is  very  agreeable  food. 

5.  Most  of  these  fishes  have  the  ventral  fins  attached  beneath 
the  pectoral  ;  those  in  which  this  arrangement  occurs  are  known 
under  the   name  of  Thoracic  Percoides:  they  are  sub-divided 
into  two  groups  characterised  by  the  number  of  the  soft  rays  of 
the  ventral  fin,  which  is  five  in  the  one,  and  seven  in  the   other. 
Among  the  first  are  those  that  have  seven  branch  iostegous  rays, 
(the  small,  thin,  and  elongated  bones  which  sustain  ihe  giil-mem- 
brane,  situate  beneath  the  operculum,  and  serving  to  complete 
the  external    parietes   of  the  branchial  cavity,)  two  dorsal  hns, 
and  all  the  teeth  very  fine  and  close,  like  the  pile  on  velvet  ;  they 
are  the  Perches,  the  Kock-Fish,.  &c. 

6.  The  PERCHES,  —  Perca,  —  are  distinguished  by  their  smooth 
tongue   and  by  the  spines  and  teeth  on  their  opercula  :  they 
inhabit,  fresh  water.     The  Common  Perch,  —  Perca  flumatilis,  — 
(fig.  47.)  which  is  greenish,  with  vertical,  blackish  bands,   and 

Fig.  47.  tne  ventral  and  anal 

fins  red,  is  found 
'throughout  Europe, 
as  weii  as  a  great 
part  of  Asia,  and  the 
United  States.  It 
inhabits  lakes,  rivers, 
and  running  streams, 
COMMON  PERCH.  and  avoids  salt,  or 

brackish  water,  and  ordinarily  keeps  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet.  These  fishesdo  not  swim  in  numerous  shoals  ;  they  feed  on 
worms,  insects  and  small  fishes:  they  spawn  in  the  month  of 
April,  and  their  eggs  are  joined  together  by  a  viscid  matter  in 
long  cords,  which  interlace  among  reeds,  £c. 

7.  The  ROCK-FISH,  or  STRIPED    BASSE,  —  Perca  labrax,—  \s   a 
sea-fish  that   has   the  tongue  covered   with  asperities,  and  the 
opercula  somewhat  different,  but  which,  in  other  respects,  closely 
resembles  the  Perches.     On  the  sides  are  parallel  lines,  like  nar- 
row ribbons,  eight  in  number,  which  give  it  the  name  of  Striped 
Basse  ;  the  scales  are  large,  of  a  metallic  lustre,  and   the   oper- 
culum is  serrated  in  the  middle  plate.     This  fish  abounds  on  our 
own  coast,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

4.  How  is  the  family  of  Percoides  distinguished  ? 

5.  What  are  Thoracic  Percoides  ? 

6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Perches  ?     What  are  the  characters  of 
the  common  Perch  ?    What  are  its  habits  ? 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Rock-fish  or  Striped  Basse  ? 


MULLETS.— FL  VI  NG.FISH. 93 

8.  The  FAMILY  OF  MULLOIDES  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the 
percoides,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  it,  by  the  large  scales 
with,  which  the  whole  body  of  these  fishes  is  covered,  and  by  two 
long  cirri  or  beards  which  hang  from  under  the  lower  jaw.     It 
is  composed  of  the  Mullets  properly    so   called,  of  which   two 
species  are   found   in    Europe,    namely:    the  Red    Mullet,    and 
Surmullet. 

9.  The  Red  Mullet,— Mnllus  barbatus, — has  the  body  and  tail 
red,  even  after  the  scales  have  been  removed  ;  its  size  is  ordinarily 
from  eight  to  ten  inches.     It  lives  in  many  seas,  particularly   in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  much  prized  for  tne  excellent  taste  ol 
its  flesh.     It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  pleasure   which  the 
Romans  took  in  contemplating  the  changes  of  colour  it  displays 
while  dying.    Exorbitant  prices  were  paid  for  Mullets  of  extraor- 
dinary size,  and  at  entertainments,  they  were  brought  to  the  table 
alive,  and  cooked  before  the  eyes  of  the  guests. 

10.  The  Surmullet, — Mullnz  snrmuletus, — is  larger  than   the 
Mullet,  and  is  longitudinally  striped  yellow ;  it  is  more  common 
in  the  ocean,  but  its  flesh  is  less  esteemed. 

11.  The  FAMILY  OF  MAILED-CHEEKS, —  Bucca   loricatce, — is 
recognised  by  the  manner  in  which  the  sub-orbital  bones  are  pro- 
longed to  the  opercula  and  protect  the  cheeks. 

12.  In  this  family  are  placed  the  Fying  Fishes, — Dactylopterus, 
— in  which  the  pectoral  fin-rays  are  very  numerous,  and  united  by 
a  membrane  so   as  p^   4g 

to  form   very  large 

pectoral   fins,  (/%. 

48.)  which  they  use 

as  wings,  to  sustain 

themselves  in  the  air 

when    they    spring 

out  of  water,  in  the 

hope     of    escaping 

from  their  enemies.  FLYING-FISH  OP  THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 

Voyagers  meet  with  them  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  particularly 

in  the  tropical  seas;  they  swim  in  numerous  shoals,   which    the 

bonita  and  other  voracious  fishes,  fiercely  pursue,  and  when,  to 

escape  this  danger,  they  spring  into  the  air,  another,  not  less 

great,  awaits  them  ;  for  a  host  of  sea-birds,  such  as  the  Frigate 

and  Phaeton,  also  pursue  them,  and  embrace  this  opportunity  to 

8.  How  is  the  family  of  Mulloides  distinguished? 

9.  What  is  the  Mullet? 

10.  What  is  the  Surmullet  ? 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Mailed-cheek? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  Flying-fishes? 


94  SCTRNOIDE^.— SPAROinES.— SQU\MIPENTNES. 

pounce  upon  them.     These  fishes  cannot  go  very  far  in  this  way 
because  the  drying  of  the  membrane  which  unites  the  rays  of  the 
pectoral  fins  forces  them  soon  to  fall  back  again  into  the  sea.. 

J3.  The  FAMILY  OF  SCIENOIDES  resembles  the  Percoides,  but 
is  distinguished  from  them  by  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  vomer 
and  palate.  In  general,  the  bones  of  the  cranium  and  face  are 
cavernous,  and  the  muzzle  is  more  or  less  inflated.  Almost  all 
the  fishes  of  this  group  are  good  to  eat,  and  many  of  them  are 
exquisite.  .To  this  family  belong  the  Umbrina,  which  is  a  large, 
good  fish,  the  Corvina  which  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
the  Drum-fishes  or  Pagonias  which  inhabit  our  own  coast ;  the 
last  are  remarkable  for  the  noise  they  make,  which  is  compared 
to  that  of  a  drum. 

14.  The  FAMILY  OF  SPAROIDES  has  neither  the  inflated  muzzle, 
nor  spiny  operculum  of  the  preceding;   but  the  palate   is  free  of 
teeth,  and  the  body  is  covered  with  scales  of  greater  or  less  size, 
and  the  mouth  is  not  protractile. 

15.  In  the  first  tribe  of  this  family,  called  Spams,  we  find  on 
each  side  of  the  jaws,  round  molar  teeth,  in  form  of  paving  stones, 

(F*y-  47-);  sometimes  there  are  also,  in  front  of  the 
jaws,  two  cutting  incisor  teeth,  almost  similar  to 
those  in  man,  (it  is  the  case  in  the  Sargtis,)  some 
species  of  which  live  near  the  Mediterranean  coasts: 
at  other  times,  we  only  find  in  front,  some  conical 
or  blunt  teeth.  The  Daurades, —  Chrifsophns, — are 
recognised  by  this  latter  character,  and  by  the  exis- 
tence of  at  least  three  rows  of  molar  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw.  The  Common  Daurade  is  frequent  on  the  coast  of 
f3ritany,  as  well  as  in  the  Mediterranean.  Its  body  is  oval,  and 
its  mouth  is  furnished  with  four  rows  of  molar  teeth  above,  and 
five  below.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  golden  colour. 

16.  The   small  family  of  MENIDES  is  composed  of  fishes  that 
very  much  resemble  the  Sparoides,  but  which  are  distinguished 
from  them  by  the  mouth,  which  is  very  protractile,   and,  at  the 
will  of  the  animal,  converted  into  a  tube 

17.  The  FAMILY  OF  SQUAMIPENNES  is  recognised  by  having  the 
soft,  and  sometimes  the  spinous  part  of  the  dorsal  and   anal  fins 
covered  by  scales,  and  difficult  to  distinguish   from  the  mass  of 
the  body,   which  is  compressed  and  also  scaly.     Some  of  the 
Scienoides  also   have  the  fins  incrusted  with  scales:  but  they 

13.  What  arc  the  characters  and  habits  of  the  Scienoides? 
14-  How  is  the  family  of  Sparoides  characterised  ? 
1£.  How  are  the  Daurades  recognised? 

16.  How  are  the  Menides  distinguished  from  the  Sparoides? 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Squarnipennes  ? 


SHOOTING-FISH.—  AN  ABAS.  95 

never  have  the  teeth  in  the  form  of  flexible  bristles  as  in  most  of 
the  Squamipennes,  and  their  inflated  muzzle  is  often  sufficient  to 
distinguish  them. 

18.  The  .Squamipennes,  in  which  the  jaws  are  furnished  with 
several  ranges  of  teeth,  similar  in  conformation  and  arrangement 
to  the  hairs  of  a  brush,  have  been  united  under  the  name  of 
CH^ETODON.  Their  mouth  is  very  small,  and  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  are  so  covered  with  scales  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  body :  they  are  very  numerous  in  the  seas  of  hot 
regions,  and  very  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  variety  of  their 
colours. 

19  The  CASTAGNOLES, — Brama, — and  the  AJICHERS, —  Toxotes, 
&c.  differ  from  the  Chaetodons  in  many  respects,  particularly  in 
having  teeth  on  the  vomerand  palate.  The  first  have  the  muzzle 
very  short,  the  forehead  vertical  and  a  very  small  number  of 
spinous  rays  concealed  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  : 
they  inhabit  the  iMedi  terra  nean.  The  Archers,  or  shooting  fishes 
have  the  forehead  very  oblique,  and  the  dorsal  fin  very  far  back, 
armed  with  strong  spines,  and  not  covered  by  scales.  The  com- 
mon species, —  Tttxotw  jaatlator, — inhabits  the  Ganges,  and  the 
seas  of  India  ;  it  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
it  projects  drops  of  water  on  insects  that  frequent  aquatic  plants, 
in  order  to  throw  them  down  and  feed  on  them.  They  throw  a 
drop  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  rarely  miss  their  aim.  This 
singular  instinct  is  common  to  a  species  of  Chaetodon  that  inhabits 
the  same  places. 

20.  The  FAMILY  OP  LABYRINTHIFORM  PHARYNGEALS,  is  a  small 
family  remarkable  for  possessing  very  complicated  cells  above 
the  branchia3.  These  cells,  enclosed  beneath  the  operculurn  and 
formed  by  the  lamellae  of  the  pharyngeal  bones,  serve  to  retain  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  which  keeps  the  branchiae  humid,  when 
the  animal  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  enables  it  to  live  in  this  way 
for  a  considerable  time:  these  fishes  are  in  the  habit  of  leaving 
the  rivers  and  pools,  their  ordinary  abode,  and  going  to  con- 
siderable distances  by  crawling  on  the  grass  or  on  the  land. 
Those  that  possess  this  labyrintniform  apparatus  in  the  highest 
degree  of  complication,  and  which  have  received  the  name  of 
ANABAS,  not  only  remain  a  long  time  out  of  water,  but  also,  as 
we  are  assured,  climb  trees.  Most  of  the  fishes  of  this  family 
Inhabit  India  and  China. 

IS.   Whit  are  the  Chaetodons  ? 

19.  VVhat  are  Castagnoles  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  Shooting- 
fish' 

20.  VVhat  are  the  characters  of  the  Labyrinthi'orm  pharyngeals  1    What 
are  their  habits? 

2O* 


96  MACKERELS. 


21.  The  FAMILY  OF  SCOMBEROIDES  is  the  most  important  of  this 
order ;  it  comprises  many  fishes  of  considerable  size,  the    taste 
of  which  is  excellent,  and  the  fecundity  so  inexhaustible,  that,   in 
spite  of  the  continued  destruction  to  which  they  are  subject,  they 
return  yearly  in  immense  legions   to   the   same   localities,  and 
offer  themselves  as  a  certain  prey  to  the  activity  of  fishermen,  and 
to  the  industry  of  those  who  make  it  a  business  to  prepare   and 
preserve  them.     The  Tunny,  the  Bonita,  and  Mackerel,    which 
are  so  useful  to  man,  and  form  a  type  of  this  family,  are   easily 
distinguished  from  other  Acanthopterygians ;  but  many   of  the 
species  that  are  naturally  grouped  around  them  possess  none  of 
the  marks  which. make  them  known,  and  establish   such  close 
relations  with  other  families,  that  the  limits  of  the  latter  are  diffi- 
cult to  define.     In  general,  the   Scomberoides   have  very  small 
scales,  and  a  large  part  of  the  skin  smooth ;  they   have   neither 
spines  nor  teeth  on  the  pieces  of  the  opercula ;  their  vertical  fins 
are  not  scaly;  the  tail,  and  the  caudal  fin  especially,  are  ordinarily 
large  and  very  vigorous.     Most  of  them  have  the  sides  of  the 
tail  carinate  or  armed  with  scales  in  form   of  a   shield ;  and   in 
many,  the  posterior  rays  of  the  second  dorsal,  and  anal  fins,  are 
separated,  and  form  so  many  falve  fit  *,  or  s  tur<ous  ft  us. 

22.  Those  which  possess  these  last  characters,  and  have  the 
dorsal  fin  continuous,  form  the  tribe  of  SCOMBER.     Their  body  is 
in  the  form  of  a  spindle,  the  tail  is  short,  and  more  or  less  carinate 
laterally,  but  not  armed  with  shields,  and  the  caudal  fin  is   very 
large :  they  are  excellent  swimmers.     This  family  includes    the 
Mackerel,  the  Tunny,  the  Sword-Fish,  &c. 

23.  The  MACKERELS, — Scombe  , — are  distinguished   from  the 
other  Scomberoides  by  the  uniformly    small  and  smooth  scales 
with  which  the  body  is  covered,  by  two  small  cutaneous  crests 
situate  upon  the  sides  of  the  tail,  and  by  a  vacant  space  that  sepa- 
rates the  two  dorsal  fins. 

24  The  Common  Mtickrrd, — Scomber  scombnis, — has  a  blue 
back,  marked  with  undulating  black  stripes,  and  five  false  tins. 
It  is  a  migratory  fish,  and  at  certain  seasons  abounds  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  and  Europe.  The  importance  of 
the  mackerel  fishery  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
state  of  Massachusetts,  no  less  than  308,462  barrels  were  packed 
during  tne  year  1830.  On  the  western  coasts  of  England,  this 
fishery  is  conducted  with  nets  at  night  by  torch-light ;  the  fisher- 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Scomberoides  ? 
'2'2.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Scomber? 

23.  Wrmt  are  the  characters  of  Mackerel? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Mackerel? 


TUNNV.-BONJTA.  9, 


men  spread  themselves  over  several  leagues  and  cast  their  nets, 
which  are  sometimes  more  than  a  league  in  extent,  in  the  direc- 
tion pursue,!  by  the  shoals  of  mackerel.  The  meshes  of  the  net 
are  of  a  size  to  receive  the  head  of  a  moderate  sized  fish,  but 
arrest  it  by  the  fins,  and  when  it  endeavours  to  extricate  itself, 
its  gills  become  entangled,  and  it  is  held  prisoner.  Mackerels  are 
also  caught  by  the  hook  and  line. 

25.  The  genus  of  T-tnny, — Tkynnn*, — is  closely  approximated 
to  that  of  the  Mackerel,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  a  sort  of 
corselet  around  the  thorax  firmed  of  scales  which  are  larger  and 
not  so  smooth  as  those  on  the  rest  of  the  body. 

26.  The  Common  Tunny, — Scomber  thy  nuns, — resembles  the 
mackerel  in  the  general  form  of  its  body;  but  it  is  rounder,  and 
attains  a  larger  size ;  in  general,  its  length  is  three  or  four  feet, 
but  sometimes  it  attains  to  more  than  fifteen.     This  fish  is  some- 
times seen  in  the  ocean;  but  it  abounds  especially  in  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  at  certain  periods  it  coasts  along  the  shores  in  innu- 
merable legions,  and  gives  rise  to  very  important  fisheries,  which 
have  been  carried  on  in  the  Mediterranean    from   the   remotest 
antiquity,  and  constitute  a  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  Provence, 
Sardinia,  &c      One  of  the  most  remarkable  modes  of  taking  the 
Tunny,  is  by  what  is  termed  the  Mudrariue.    This  name  is  given 
to  a  sort  of  labyrinth  constructed  of  nets  stretched  out  vertically 
in  the  sea,  and  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  series  of  chambers,  open 
from  the  land  side  by  a  sort  of  door,  and  united  by  another  net 
which  bars  the  passage  and  arrests  the  tunnies  in  their  periodical 
course  along  the  shore.     These  fishes  at  first  pass  between   the 
shore,  and  the  chambers  destined  to  receive  them  ;  but,  arrested 
by  the  net  mentioned  above,  they  turn  towards  the  high  sea,  and 
enter  the  labyrinth  where  they  become  confounded,  and   fall  an 
easy  prey. 

27.  On  the  coast  of  the  United  States  they  do  not  run  in  shoals. 
They  are  occasionally  taken  in  baiting  other  more  common  fishes. 
In  Europe,  the  flesh  of  the  Tunny  is  very   much   esteemed,  it 
resembles  beef,  and  is  preserved  either  by  the  aid  of  salt,  or  by 
boiling  and  immersing  in  oil. 

28.  The  tionita, — Scomber  pelamys,— celebrated  on  account 
of  its  pursuit  of  Flying-fishes  in  the  tropics,  is  a  species  of  Tunny, 
which  may  be  recognised  by  the  longitudinal  brown  stripes  with 
which  its  belly  is  marked. 

25.  How  is  the  genus  Tunny  distinguished  from  that  of  Mackerel  T 

26.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Tunny  ? 

27.  Are  Tunnies  caught  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States  ? 

28.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Bonita? 

8 

i 


p. 

?^' 


38    SWORD-FISH.— PILOT-FISH.— RIBBON  FIStJ.-SURG EON. _ 

29.  The    Tnbe  of  Sword- fi*hes,  is   distinguished    from    all 

other  fishes  of  the  same  family,  by 
the  beak,  or  long  sword-like  point, 
which  terminates  the  upper  jaw, 
(Fig.  49.)  and  forms  a  powerful 
weapon  with  'which  these  , fishes 
SWORD-FISH.  attack  the  largest  marine  animals. 

30.  The  Sword -fishes  properly   so   colled,  —  Xiphias, —  are 
without   ventral   fins,   and   the   prolongation   of  the   muzzle  is 
flattened  horizontally,  and  is  cutting  like  a  broad   sword    blade. 
But  one  species  is  known, — Xipliias  gladius, — which    is   often 
fifteen  or  even  more  feet  in  length ;  it  is  more  common   in  the 
Mediterranean  than  in  the  Atlantic.     The  flesh,  which   is   white 
and  compact,  is  delicate.     This  fish  is  not  uncommon  near  our 
own  coasts,  and  is  often  taken  with  the  harpoon. 

31.  Another  tribe,  called  Centronotvs,  is  characterised  by  the 
absence  of  the  membrane  that  unites  the  rays  of  the  first  dorsal 
fin,  which  consequently  remain  free.     Among  other  fishes  be- 
longing to  this  tribe  is  the   ljilot-fish, — (Navcrates,  or  Scomber 
ductor,) — so  called  from  its  habit  of  following  vessels,  to  seize 
what  may  be  thrown  overboard,  and  also  from  the  habit  attributed 
to  it,  of  conducting  the  Shark,  which,  directed  by  the  same  instinct, 
also  very  frequently  accompanies  vessels  at  sea  with  great' perse- 
verance.    They  have  a  fusiform  body,  very  small  scales,  nearly 
the  same  as  the  mackerel,  and  cartilaginous  carinae  on  the  sides 
of  the  tail  like  the  Tunny.     The  common  species  is  about  a  foot 
long. 

32.  The  FAMILY  OF  TJENIOIDES  is  composed  of  Acanthoptery- 
gians,  which   approximate   the  Scomberoides ;    they  also   have 
very  small  scales,  but  are  distinguished  by  an  extremely  elongated 
body,   very  much  flattened   on  the  sides,  the  form  of  which  has 
obtained  for  them  the  name  of  RIBBON-FISHES. 

33.  The  FAMILY  OF  THEUTYES  also  resembles  the  Scomberoides. 
ft  is  composed  of  a  small  number  of  fishes,  the  body  of  which  is 
compiessed  and  oblong,  with  a  small  mouth,  but  slightly,  if  at 
all    protractile,  and  armed  in  each  jaw,  with   a  single  row  of 
cutting  teeth  :  the  palate  and  tongue  are  without  teeth,  and  there 
is  but   one   dorsal    fin.     The  Theutyes  are  herbivorous.     The 
ACANTHUIU,  called  Surgeons,  on  account   of  a  large,  moveable 

29.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Sw.ord  fishes  distinguished? 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sword-fish  properly  so  called  ? 

31.  What  is  the  Pilot  Fish? 

32.  How  are  the  T^enioides  distinguished  ? 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Theutyes-?     What  are  the 
Aoamnuri  ? 


MALACOPTERYGIANS. 93 

spine,  sharp  as  a  lancet,  which  they  have  on  each  side  of  the 
tail,  with  which  they  inflict  severe  wounds  on  those  who  impru- 
dently take  hold  of  them,  belong  to  this  family. 

34.  The  FAMILY  OF  MUGILOIDES,  is  distinct  from  all  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  characterised  by  an  almost  cylindrical  body, 
covered  with  large  scales,  a  slightly  depressed  head,  and  short 
muzzle,  a  transverse  mouth  armed  with  extremely  fine  teeth, 
two  separate  dorsal  fins,  ventral  fins  attached  behind  the  pectoral, 
cVc.  They  constitute  a  single  genus,  the  Mullets,  —  MUGIL,-- 
which  are  much  esteemed. 


LESSON    VII. 

ORDER  OF  ABDOMINAL  MALACOPTERYGIANS. —  Division. 

FAMILY  OF  CYPRINOIDES. — Carp — Gold-Jish. — Gudgeon. —  Tench, 

Sfc.  Sfc. 

FAMILY  OF  ESOCES. — Pike. — Exocets,  or  Flying-fishes. 
FAMILY  OF  SILUROIDES. — Electric  Silurus,  #c. 
FAMILY  OF  SALMONIDES. — Common  Salmon. — Salmon  Fishing. — 

Trout. — Smelt. 
FAMILY  OF  CLUPE;E.  —  Herrings.  —  Herring  Fishing. — Shad. — 

Sardines. — Anchovies,  Sfc. 

ORDER    OF    IYIALACOPTERYGII    ABDOMINALES. 

1.  This  division  is  composed  of  Osseous  Fishes  that  have  the 
upper  jaw  moveable,  simple  pectinate  branchiae,  the  fin-rays  car- 
tilaginous :  their  ventral  fins  are  suspended  beneath  the  abdomen 
and  behind  the  pectoral  fins,  without  being  attached  to  the  bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

2.  It  is  composed  of  five  families,  namely:  the  Cyprinoides, 
comprishing  those  fishes  that  resemble  Carp ;    the   Esoces,    or 
Pikes,  &c.;  the  Siluroidcs;  the  Salmonides,  the  type  of  which  is 
the  common  Salmon  ;  and  the   dupece^  or  Herrings,  and  other 
fishes  having  the  same  organization.    They  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  following  characters  : 

34.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Mugiloides  ? 
1.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Abdominal  Malacopterygians  ? 
y.  How  is  this  order  divided? 


100  FAMILY  OF  CYPRINOFDRS. 


(Families.) 

("     Mouth  small,  weak, 

1 

and  oiten  unprovided 

with      teeth,     except 

f  CYPRINOIDEI 

f      Margin  of 

around    the   pharynx. 

1 

the  upper  jaw 

Body  scaly. 

J 

formed  almost 

entirely  by  the  "         Mouth  large,  and 

intermaxillary 

armed    with     strong, 

30MWALKS. 

Without  an 
zuli],ose  fin  on- 
the  back. 

bones. 

pointed  teeth. 
Body  ordinarily 
covered      with     very 
small  scales. 

ESOCES. 

3 

Margin  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  in 

1 

r  < 

the  middle  by  the  intermaxillary  bones, 

1 

g 

and  on  the  sides  by  the  maxillary  bones. 

I    LvfEJE' 

1 

^      Body  scaly. 

J 

I 

S-  SAI.AIOMDF.S. 

^      adipose  fin  on .{ 
J52   L    the  back.*     ^  Body  unprovided  with  true  scales,    -       }•  SILUROIPES. 

*  We  give  the  name  of  adipose  Jin  to  any  fin  that  is  not  sustained  by  fin- 
rays,  and  only  consists  of  a  fold  of  skin  filled  with  fat. 

3.  The  CYPRINOIDES, — (  Cyprinidee,)  —  have  a   slightly   cleft 
mouth,  weak  jaws,  most  frequently  without  teeth,  and    a   scaly 
body,  without  an  adipose  dorsal  fin.     They  are  the  least  carnivo- 
rous of  the  fishes. 

4.  One  of  the  principal  tribes  of  this  family  is  the   CYPRINIJS, 
which  is  composed  of  fresh-water  fishes,  and  includes  the  Com- 
mon Carp,  the  Gold-Jisli,  the  Ilarbi'l,  the  Gudyeon,  the    TVwcA, 
&c.     This  group  is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the 
jaws,  by  the  existence  of  a  single  dorsal  fin,  and  ordinarily  the 
scales  are  large.     Most  of  these  fishes  feed  on  grains,  herbs,  &c. 
They  have  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  a  masticatory  apparatus 
for  crushing  their  food. 

5.  The  Carps, — Cyprinvs, — are  distinguished   by  their  long 
dorsal  fin  which,  as  well  as  the  anal,  is  provided  with  a  more  or 
less  strong  spine  for  the  second  fin-ray. 

6.  The  Common    Carp, — Cypriuus   carpio, — is   found   in   all 
Europe,  but  has  not  yet  been  met  with  in  the  United  States.     It 
delights  in  tranquil  waters,  and  is  easily  reared  in  rivers  and  ponds; 
the  duration  of  its  life  is  very  long,  and  it  is  exceedingly  prolific. 


3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Cyprinoides? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  the  tribe  of  Cyprinus  ? 

5.  How  are  the  Carps  distinguished  ? 

6.  Where  is  the  common  Carp  found  ?     What  are  it»  habits  ? 


CARP.— GOI/D-F1SFT.—  GUDGEON.— TENCH.— BREAM.      101 

When  young,  the  growth  of  Carps  is  very  rapid,  and  at  six  years 
old  they  weigh  about  three  pounds ;  they  often  attain  three  or 
four  feet  in  length.  During  the  winter,  they  bury  themselves  in 
the  mud,  and  pass  many  months  without  eating. 

7.  The   Golden  Carp,  or    Gold-fish, — Cyprinus   auratus, — is 
reared  in  garden  ponds,  and  vases,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of 
its  colours,  which  are  a  mixture  of  black,  a  beautiful  golden  red 
and  silvery  white. 

8.  The   Barbels, —  Barbut,  —  resemble  the  Carps,  but    their 
d}rsal  fin  is  shorter.     The  Common  Barbel,  —  Cyprinus  barbus, 
— abounds  in  clear  running  waters,  and  sometimes  attains  more 
than  ten  feet  in  length. 

9.  The    Gudgeons, —  Gobin, — also   resemble   the   Carps;  but 
they  have  no  bony  spine,  (Fit/.  50.)  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  ;  fhe  mouth 

is  surrounded  with  cirri,  or 
beards.  There  is  one  species 
which  abounds  in  the  rivers  of 
France,  and  though  small,  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  taste.  CUDGKON. 

10.  The  Tenches, —  Tinea, — in  addition  to  the  characters   of 
the  Gudgeons,  have  very  small  scales,  and  very  short  cirri.    The 
Common  Tench, — Cyprinus  tinea, — inhabits  stagnant  waters  in 
France  ;  it  is  generally  of  a  yellowish  brown,  attains  about  a  foot 
in  length,  and  is  less  esteemed  than  the  Carp. 

11.  The    Bream*, — Ahmmis, — have   neither  spinous  fin-rays 
nor  cirri;  their  dorsal  fin  is  short,  but  the  anal  is  long.     Two 
species   are   found  in  France.     In  the  United  States  they  are 
small. 

1 2.  The  Shiner,— Cyprinus  erusolencas, — is  among  the  smallest 
of  fresh- water  fishes,  being  usually  less  than  an  inch  in   length. 
Shiners  are  the  prey  of  their  larger  neighbours,  and  the  sport  of 
school-boys,  who  angle  for  them  with  a  crooked  pin. 

1 3.  The  Minnow, — Cypi  inns  atromisns, — is  another  of  the  very 
small  fishes,  scarcely  exceeding  an  inch  in  length.     It  is  found 
in  the  brooks  in  every  part  of  New  England  and  the  Middle 
States. 

7.  What  is  the  Gold-fish? 

8.  What  are  Barbels  ? 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  Gudgeons  ? 

10.  How  are  Tenches  characterised  ? 

1 1.  What  are  the  characters  of  Breams  ? 
1£.  What  is  the  Shiner  ? 

3.  What  is  the  Minnow  ? 
8* 


103 ROACH.— SUCKER.— PIKE. 

14.  The  Roaches, — Leuciscus, — form   several  species,    all   of 
which  are  small.     The  Common  Roach,  —  Leuciscus  vu/garis, — 
acquires  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  is    remarkable   for 
its  brilliant  scales,  which  are  easily  detached ;  they  are  silvery  on 
the  sides,  and  under  parts  of  the  body.     The  nacreous  substance 
which  gives  them  this  metallic  appearance,  is  employed   in  the 
arts  for  the  manufacture  of  false  pearls. 

1 5.  The  Suckers,  or  Loaches,  —  Cobitis, — have  a  mouth  unpro- 
vided with  teeth ;  but  it  is  surrounded  by  lips  fitted  for  sucking. 
Their  head  is  small ;  the  body  is  elongated,  covered  with  small 
scales,  and  enveloped  in  a  mucosity  or  slime ;  their  ventral  fins  are 
very  far  back,  and  over  them  is  found  a  single  small  dorsal  fin. 

16.  The  FAMILY  OP  ESOCES,  which   comprises  the  Pikes  and 
analogous  fishes,  has  no  adipose  fin ;  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  the  conformation  of  the  mouth,  and  the   existence 
of  teeth. 

17.  The  PIKES, — Esox,— are  recognised  by  their  oblong,  obtuse, 
broad,  depressed  muzzle ;  they  have  but  one  dorsal  tin  which  is 
placed   opposite  to  the  anal,  (Fig.  51.)  and  nearly    the  whole 
entrance  of  the  mouth,  as  well  as  the  jaws,  are   full    of   teeth. 

t  5  [ .  The  Common  Pike, — Esox 

lucius,  —  is  found  in  the 
fresh  waters  of  Europe  and 
North  America.  It  is  less 
common  in  the  south  than 
P1KE-  in  the  north,  and  is  every 

where  sought  for  its  flesh,  which  is  savoury,  and  of  easy  digestion. 
It  is  the  most  voracious  and  most  destructive  of  all  the  fresh 
water  fishes ;  it  devours  with  avidity,  frogs,  young  ducks,  and 
all  the  fishes  that  come  in  its  way.  It  often  seizes  animals  larger 
than  itself,  and  its  presence  in  a  pond  is  sometimes  enough  to 
depopulate  it  in  a  short  time.  Pikes  four  or  five  feet  long,  are 
not  rare  in  the  great  lakes  of  northern  Europe,  and  one  of  still 
larger  size  has  been  seen.  In  1497,  a  Pike  was  caught  at 
Kaiserlautern,  near  Manheim,  which  was  nearly  nineteen  feet  in 
length,  weighing  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  This  giant 
was  as  remarkable  for  its  great  age,  as  for  its  size :  for  there 
was  found  upon  it  a  gilt  copper  ring  bearing  this  inscription  : 
"  I  am  the  first  fish  that  was  thrown  into  this  pond,  by  the  hands 
of  Frederick  II.  October  5,  1230;"  it  was  consequently,  at  least 

14.  What  are  Roaches?     For  what  purpose  are  their  scales  used  ? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  Loaches? 

16.  What  fishes  compose  the  family  of  Esoces? 

17.  How  are  the  Pikes  characterised?     What  are  the  habits  of  the  com- 
mon Pike  ? 


ELECTRIC  SILURUS.  1D3 


two  hundred  and  sixty  seven  years  old.  The  growth  of  these 
fishes  is  very  rapid  ;  the  first  year  they  are  often  ten  or  eleven 
inches  in  length,  and  in  the  second,  fifteen. 

The  Sra  I'ike, —  Exnx  bdonc, — also  known   as   the  gar-fish, 
spit-fish,  and  bill-fish,  belongs  to  this  family. 

18.  KXOCETS,  (or  Fly  ing -Fishes,   as   they,   as    well    as   the 
Danhilnptervs,  (I'fifje  93.)  are  also  commonly  called,)  —Exocetus, 
— belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  Pikes,  and  are  recognised  at 
first  sight  by  the  excessive  length  of  their  pectoral  fins,    which 
are  long  enough  to  serve  them  as  wings,  and  sustain  them  for  a 
few  seconds  in  the  air.     They  swirn  in  shoals,  and  are  pursued 
by  legions  of  voracious  fishes,  to  escape  from  which  they  spring 
out  of  water;  but  they  soon  fall  again,  because  their  wings  only 
serve  them  as  a  parachute ;  and,  while  on  their  aerial  course,  they 
become  the  prey  of  sea-birds,  as  well  as  of  sharks  and  other  fishes. 

19.  The   FAMILY  OP  SILUROIDES  differs   from  all   other  abdo- 
minal malacopterygians,  in  the  absence  of  true  scales.     The  skin 
is  naked,  or  furnished  with  bony  plates.     The  dorsal  and  pectoral 
fins  have  almost  always,  a  strong  articulated  spine  for  the  first 
fin-ray,  and,  as  in  the  next  family,  there  is  often  one  adipose  fin 
posteriorly;    and   the  mouth    also   has    some    peculiarities    of 
structure. 

20.  Most  of  these  fishes  belong  to  the  tribe  of  SILURUS,  which 
is  recognised  by  the  naked  skin,  by  the  mouth  cleft  at  the  end  of 
the  muzzle,  and  by  a  strong  spine  that,  in  general,  constitutes  the 
first  ray  of  the  pectoral  fin,  which  is  articulated  with  the  shoulder, 
and  so  arranged,  that  it  can  be  approximated  to  the  body,   or 
raised    perpendicularly   to  it,  and    thus  used   as  a    dangerous 
weapon.     The  Sit-uri  properly  st  calfnd,  have  a  small  fin  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  back,   sustained  by  rays.     One   sp?cies   of  this 
genus,  the  only  one  in  France,  is  the  largest  fresh  water   fish    of 
Europe.     Its  length  ordinarily  exceeds  six  feet,  and  its   weight 
is   often  three  hundred  pounds.     The   Cat-fish  belongs  to  this 
tribe. 

21.  The  Malapteruri  differ  but  little  from   the  Siluri,  from 
which  they  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  rayed  fin   on 
the  back,  and  by  some  other  characters.     The  famous    Silurus 
electricu*  of  the   Nile,   is   the   only   species   belonging    to   this 
division  :  like  the  Torpedo  and  Gymnotus,  it  possesses  the  power 

18.  What   are   the   characters  and    habits  of  the  fishes    of*  the  genus 
Exocetus? 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Silurcides? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Silurus  * 

21.  What  arc  the  characters  of  the  Silurus  electricus  ?     Where   is    the 
electric  organ  situate  ? 

2P 


104  SALMON.— SALMON  FISHERV. 

of  giving  strong  electric  shocks ;  it  appears  that  the  seat  of  this 
faculty  is  in  a  peculiar  tissue,  situate  between  the  muscles  and 
the  skin,  and  having  the  appearance  of  a  fatty  cellular  structure. 
This  tish  which  inhabits  the  Senegal  as  well  as  the  Nile,  is 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length.  The  Arabs  call  it  raasch, 
which  signifies  thunder. 

22.  The  FAMILY  OF  SALMONIDES,  of  which  the  Salmons  are  the 
type,  are  characterised   by  a  scaly  body,  and  a  first  dorsal  fin 
with  soft  rays,  followed  by  a  second  which  is  small  and  adipose, 
that  is,  formed  of  a  fold  of  skin  filled  with  fat,  and  without  rays. 

23.  The  most  interesting  genus  of  this  family,  is  that   of  the 
Ha/nifiHS, — Saliva,  —  which    have  the   mouth    more  completely 
armed    with   teeth   than    any   other   fish;    they    are    naturally 
voracious,  and  ascend  very  far  up  rivers  to  deposit  their  eggs; 
their  body  is  almost  always  spotted,   and   their   flesh    is    much 
esteemed 

24.  The  Common  Salmon, —  Sa/mo  salar — is  the  largest  species 
of  the  genus ;  its  flesh  is  red,  its  body  elongated,  and   flattened 
laterally,  and  it  often  attains  six  feet  in  length.     It   is   found   in 
great  numbers  in  all  the  Arctic  seas,  whence  it  ascends  rivers  in 
large  shoals  every  spring.     It  swims  with  great  rapidity,  and  can 
clear  at  a  leap,  obstacles  in  its  passage,  twelve  or  fifteen    feet   in 
height.     When  they    fall   in    with   a  cave,  or  some  other  place 
favourable  for  spawning,  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  a.  hole  in  the 
sand,  and  then  permit  themselves  to  be  carried  by  the  current  to 
the  sea,  where  they  go,  to  acquire  strength  to  return   again   the 
following  year.     Young  salmons  are  therefore  born  in  the  rivers, 
but  their  growth  is  rapid,  and  when  they  attain  the  size  of  about 
twelve  inches,  they  descend  to  the  sea  like  the  adults. 

25.  The  salmon  fishery,  in  many  countries,  forms  a  very   im- 
portant branch  of  industry.     In  Norway,  as  many  as  300  of  these 
fishes  have  been  caught  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net ;  and    in  the 
river  Tweed  as  many  as  700  ;  the   time   selected   for   catching 
them  is  when  they  ascend  rivers  to  spawn,  for  after  they   have 
deposited  their  eggs  and  are  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  they   are 
lean,  and  their  flesh  is  of  little  value.    In  general,  this  fishery  is 
conducted  with  nets  stretched  across  the  river,  and  so  arranged, 
that  the  salmons  are  caught  in  the  meshes:  but  sometimes,  in 
Scotland,  fqr  example,  they  are  taken ^with  a  spear  or   harpoon. 
They  are  also  caught  with  a  hook  and  line. 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Salmonides? 

23.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  genus  of  Salmons  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  commdh  Salmon?  What  are  its  habits  ? 
25   What  is  the  mode  of  catching  Salmon  ? 


TROUT.— SMELT.— GRAYLING. 105 

20.  The  Salmon  Trout, — Sulmo  tnii.ta,—l\ke  the  salmon  has 
reddish  flesh,  and  the  caudal  tin  crescent  shaped  :  but  it  has  on  all 
the  under  p  irts  of  the  body,  a  great  number  of  blaok  spots,  ocellate, 
or  in  form  of  an  X ;  it  sometimes  weighs  eight  or  ten  pounds. 

27  The  (JomtHon.  Trnut, — Sutm*  fario, — has  the  caudal  fin 
but  little  notched,  and  its  flesh  is  white:  (Fty.  52.)  it  is  also 
distinguished  by  the  brown  spots  on  the  back,  and  red  spots  sur- 
rounded by  a  bright  circle  on 
the  flanks,  which  arc  on  a 
ground,  the  shade  of  which 
varies  from  white  and  golden 
yellow,  to  a  deep  brown.  It  is 
commonly  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  in  length,  weighing  about 

a  pound ;  but    it    is'  sometimes  COMMON  TROUT. 

met  with  of  larger  size.  It  inhabits  rivers  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Many  other  river 
Trouts  are  known,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  lakes  and  mountain 
streams,  and  which  vary  in  their  size  and  colours  in  each  locality; 
some  naturalists  regard  them  as  different  species,  and  others  look 
upon  them  as  simple  varieties,  resulting  from  age,  food,  and  the 
quality  of  the  waters  in  which  they  dwell. 

28.  The  SMELTS,  —  Osmerus,  —  also  belong  to   the  family  of 
Salmonides  ;  they  differ  from  the  preceding  in  the   almost  total 
absence  of  teeth  on  the  vomer,  in  the  number  of  the   branchios- 
tegous  rays,  which  is  eight  in  place  of  ten,  and  in  the  absence  of 
spots  on  the  body.     They  are  caught  in  the  sea  at  the  mouths  of 
large  rivers;  their   flesh   is   excellent.     The  Common  Smelt, — 
Osruerus  ept-rlunus, — is  small :  it  is  ornamented    with   the   most 
dazzling  silvery  and  light  green  tints.    The  skin  is  so  exceedingly 
thin  that,  under  the  microscope,  the  blood  may  be  seen  circulating 
in  the  cutaneous  vessels. 

29.  The  GRAYLINGS,—  Thyinnllus, — have  jaws  like  the  Trout; 
but  the  mouth  is  but  slightly  cleft,  and  the  teeth  are  very  fine, 
They  have  the  habits  of  the  Trout,  and  their  flesh  is   equally 
esteemed.  The  Cnmnum  Gray/iny, — Salmn  thymatlus, — is  striped 
blackish  longitudinally  :  it  attains  a  size  of  eighteen  inches,  and 
in  the  spring,  ascends  several  rivers  of  France  and  Italy.     It  is 
especially  met  with  in  the  pure,  limpid  waters  of  the  mountains 
of  America  and  Switzerland. 


26.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Salmon  Trout  ? 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Trout  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 
25.  What  are  Smelts?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Smelt  f 
29.  What  are  the  characters  of  Graylings? 


IOG  HERRINGS. 


The  family  of  Sahnonides  comprises  a  great  number  of  other 
genera. 

30.  The  FAMILY  OP  CLUPE^  has  no  adipose  fin  like  the  pre- 
ceding ;  the  tipper  jaw  is  formed,  as  in  the  trouts,  in  the  middle, 
by  intermaxillary  bones  without  pedicles,  and  on  the  sides  by  the 
maxillary  bones.     The  body  of  these  fishes  is  always  scaly,  and 
most  of  them  ascend  rivers. 

31.  The  most  important  tribe  of  this   family  is   that  of  the 
HERRINGS,  characterised  by  narrow,  short,  intermaxillary  bones, 
and  by  the  inferior  edge  of  the  body  being  compressed,  the  scales 
of  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  notches  like  the  teeth   of  a 
saw.     These  fishes  are  remarkable  for  the   fineness  and  great 
number  of  their  bones,  as  well  as   for   the   peculiarities   of  their 
branchial  apparatus. 

32.  HERRINGS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Clupea, — have   a  mode- 
rate sized  mouth,  without  a  notch  in  front. 

33.  The  Common  Herring, — Clupea  harengus, — is  ordinarily 
eight  or  nine  inches  in  length,  the  head   small  and  compressed, 
the  mouth  slightly  cleft,  the  lower  jaw  longer  than  the  upper,  the 
inferior  edge  of  the  body  slightly  carinate,  the  scales  large,   and 
slightly  adherent,  the  back  bluish,  and  the  belly   silvery      It  in- 
habits the  northern  seas,  and  arrives  every  year  in  innumerable 
legions  upon  different  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Kurope,  Asia,  and 
America,  but  does  not  go  very  far  south  of  the  fortieth   degree 
of  north  latitude.     Some  naturalists  suppose  that  all    herrings 
periodically  retire  beneath  the  ice  of  the  polar  seas,  and  set  out 
from  this  common  retreat  in  an  immense  column,  which,  dividing, 
spreads  along  almost  all  the  coasts  north  of  the  parallel  above 
named;  but  this  distant  emigration,  and  this  common  rendezvous 
in  the  arctic  regions,  are  far  from  being  demonstrated,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  such  is  not  the  case. 

34.  In  the  months  of  April  and  May,  herrings  begin  to  appear 
in  the  waters  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  towards  the  end   of 
June,  or  in  July,  they  arrive  in  incalculable   numbers,  forming 
vast  and  dense  shoals,  which  sometimes  extend  over  the  surface 
of  the  sea  for  several  leagues,  and  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness. 
In  September,  they  arrive  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain      From 
that  region  they  cross  the  Atlantic  in  a  south  westerly  direction, 
and  make  their  appearance  on  the  coast  of  Georgia,  about  the 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Family  of  Clupeae  ? 

31.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Herrings? 

32.  How  are  Herrings  properly  so  called  distinguished? 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Herring? 

34.  Where  are  Herrings  found  ? 


SARDINES.  107 


last  of  January;  detachments  then  begin  to  move  eastward,  and 
by  the  end  of  April,  the  whole  American  sea-board  is  lined  with 
them. 

35.  The  herring  fishery  is  one  of  great  importance.     It  occu- 
pies every  year  entire  fleets,  and  formerly,  it  was  carried  on  with 
still  greater  activity.     About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the 
Dutch  employed  not  less  than  two  thousand  vessels,   and  it  is 
estimated    that   eight   hundred   thousand   persons,  in   the    two 
provinces  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  derived  their  living 
from  this  branch  of  industry  alone.     The  Norwegians,  the  Ameri- 
cans, the  Scotch,  the  English,  and  even  the  French  embarked  in 
this  fishery  in  considerable  numbers,  and  though  its  importance 
is  now  considerably  lessened,  it  is  still  a  great  source  of  wealth 
to  the  people  bordering  the  northern  seas. 

36.  This  fishery  is  ordinarily  conducted  with  nets  five  or   six 
hundred  fathoms  in  length,  the  lower  edge   of  which    is  loaded 
with  lead,  while  the  upper  edge  is  made  to  float  on  the  surface  by 
means  of  buoys;  the  meshes  are  just  large  enough  to  receive  the 
head  of  a  herring  as  far  as  the  gills,  but  not  allow  the  pectoral  fina 
to  pass.     The  fish,  in  endeavouring  to  overcome  the  obstacle  that 
this  great  vertical  partition  opposes  to  its  passage,  is  thus  meshed, 
and,  not  being  able  to  advance  or  recede,  owing  to  the  gills  and 
tins,  he  remains  a  prisoner,  until  the  fishermen  draw  the  net  on 
board.     This   is  termed  a  yiU-net.     The   number  of  herrings, 
taken  in  this  way,  is  sometimes  so  great,  that  the  net  bursts  under 
their  weight.    Generally  this  fishery  is  carried  on  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore,  and,  for  this  reason,  the  hen  ings  are  salted  on 
board.     It  is  a  prejudice  to  suppose  that  the  herrings  caught  on 
our  own  coasts  are  inferior  to  those  that  fall  into  foreign  nets. 

37.  The    Sardine, —  Clnpta  surdiua, — is    a  small    species    of 
Herring,  celebrated  for  the  great  delicacy  of  its  flesh.    It  inhabits 
the  Atlantic,  the  Baltic,  and  the  Mediterranean.     During  winter 
it  keeps  in  the  depths  of  the  sea;  but  about  the  month  of  June  it 
draws  near  the  shore  in  immense  shoals.     As  many  as  forty,  and 
even  fifty  thousand  have  been  caught  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net. 
Sardines  are  caught  in  the  same  way  as  Herrings,  but  the  meshes 
of  the  net  are  smaller,  and  the  fishermen,  to  attract  the  fish  from 
time  to  time,  throw  into  the  sea,  a  peculiar  bait,  which  is  prepared 
from  cod-fish  eggs      From  the  mouth  of  the   Loire   to   the  ex- 
tremity of  Britany,  this  fish  abounds  every  summer,  and  gives 

35.  Is  the  Herring  fishery  important? 

36.  How  are  Herrings  caught?     What  are  the  qualities    of  Americas 
Herring  ? 

37.  What  are  Sardines  ?     How  are  they  caught? 

2P* 


108 SHAD.— ALEWIFE.— ANCHOVY. 

rise  to  productive  fisheries:  along  the  coast  there  are  a  great 
number  of  establishments  for  the  preparation  and  preservation  of 
Sardines. 

38.  There  are  many  other  species  of  Herring,  among  which 
is  the  Pilchard,  which  does  not  differ  much  from  the  Sardine,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  larger ;  the  Sprat,  which  is  smaller  than  the  Herring, 
is  also  salted  or  pickled,  and  the  White-bait,  a  very  small  fish  of 
the  most  beautiful  silver  colour,  with  a  black  spot  on  the  end  of 
the  muzzle. 

39.  SHADS, — Jilosa,—are  distinguished  from  Herrings  properly 
so  called,  by  a  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw.     The  Com- 
mon Skad,—  Jllosa  vulgar  is, — which  attains  three  feet  in  length, 
and  has  no  visible  teeth,  inhabits  the  sea,  and  in  the  spring  ascends 
rivers  in  numerous  shoals.     At  this  period  their  flesh  is  excellent; 
but  when  the  fish  is  caught  at  sea,  it  is  dry,  and  possesses  an 
unpleasant  taste. 

40.  The  Jllewife, — Clupen  vernalis, — holds  a  place  between  the 
shad  and  the  herring,  possessing  the  general  characteristics  of  both. 
Its  habits  beara  striking  resemblance  to  those  two  fishes;  it  ascends 
rivers  to  deposit  its  spawn,  and  afterwards  retires  to  the  ocean. 
It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  rivers  of  New  England. 

41.  The  ANCHOVIES, — Eugraulis, — also  belong  to  this  family; 
but  they  differ  from  the  herrings  in  the  mouth,  which  is  cleft  far 
behind  the^eyes,  in  their  gills  which  are  more  open,  and  in  some 
other  characteristics.     The  Common  £ni-hwy,—Engranli$  encra- 
sichnlus, — is  three  or  four  inches  long;  the  back  is  brown,   and 
the  flanks  and  belly  silvery ;  it  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  as 
well  as  on  the  western  coasts  of  France  and  Spain,  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  in  the  Baltic  Sea.     At  a 
certain  period  of  the  year,  which  varies  in  different  localities,  it 
leaves  the  high  sea  and  approaches  the  coast  to  spawn,  when   it 
becomes  the  object  of  an  important  fishery.     To  catch  it,   the 
French  fishermen  provide  themselves  with  nets,  which  are  about 
two  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  breadth, 
and  assemble  four  boats,  one  of  which  carries  the  net,  and   the 
others  furnaces,  in  which  they  make  a  bright  fire ;  this  fishery  is 
carried  on  in  dark  nights  from  April  to  July;  they  station  them- 
selves about  five  miles  from  the  coast;  and  when  the  anchovies, 
attracted  by  the  light,  are  assembled  in  large  numbers  around  a 

38  What  other  fishes  belong  to  the  genus  of  Herrings? 

39  What  is  the  characteristic  difference  between  the  Shad  and  Herrings  1 

40.  What  is  tne  Alewife? 

41.  What  are  Anchovies?     What  are  the   characters  of  the    common 
Anchovy  ?     How  are  Anchovies  caught? 


FAMILY  OF  GAD01PES. 109 

boat  thus  illuminated,  the  net  is  cast  into  the  water,  and  laid  out 
so  as  to  surround  the  assembled  fishes;  this  done,  the  fire  is  sud- 
denly extinguished,  and  the  anchovies  alarmed,  in  seeking  to 
escape,  are  taken  in  the  net.  They  are  preserved  with  salt,  after 
removing  the  head  and  intestines. 

The  family  of  Clupea3  embraces  a  great  number  of  other  genera, 
many  of  which  possess  remarkable  peculiarities,  but  our  JimiU 
will  not  permit  us  to  describe  them. 


LESSON    VIII 

OhDER    OP  CHIAN    M  AL  AOOPTER  Y  G  I  A  NS. Family  oj 

Gadoides. —  Cods. —  Common  Cod. — Cod  Fishery. —  Whiting. — 

Hake. —  Ling. 
FAMILY  OF  PLKURONECTES. — Organization. —  Plaice. —  Turbnt. — 

>We. — Family  of  Discobnli. 
FAMILY  OF  ECHENEIS. —  liemora. 
ORDER  OF  APODOUS  MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Eels. — Common  Eel — 

S-'a  Eel. — Gymnotus  elect  ricus. 

ORDER  OF  LOPHOBRANCHIANS. —  Organization. — Hippocampus. 
ORDER  OF  PLECTOGNATHI.  —  Organization. — Diodou. — Trunk-fislt* 

ORDER    OF    MALACOPTHRYGII    SUBBRACHIATI. 

/.  This  Order  is  distinguished  from  other  Malacopterygians 
by  the  situation  of  the  ventral  fins,  which  are  placed  beneath  the 
pectorals,  the  pelvis  being  suspended  immediately  from  the  bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

2.  The  Subbrachian  Malacopterygians  constitute  four  families, 
namely  :   Gadoides,  Plenronectes-,  Discoboli ,  and  Echeneis. 

3.  The   FAMILY  OF  GADOIDES  is   composed     of    Subbrachian 
Malacopterygians  in  which  the  body  is  a  little  compressed,  and 
symmetrical,  in  which  the  ventral  fins  are  sharpened  to  a  point, 
and  attached  under  the  throat;  they  are  covered  with  soft,  small 
scales  ;  most  of  them  live  in  cold  or  temperate  seas,  and  they 
afford  to  man  an  abundance  of  a  good  and  wholesome  food.    In. 
this  family  are  placed  the  genera  of  Cod,  Whiting,  Ling,  &c. 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Subbrachian  MalacopterygianB  ? 

*2    Into  what  families  is  tliis  order  divided  ? 

3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Nthe  fkmily  of  Gadoides  ? 


110  COD.— WHITING 


4.  The  Coos, — GWwv,— are  distinguished  by  the  existence  of 
three  dorsal,  and  two  anal  fins,  and  a  cirrus  at  the   end    of  the 

•  muzzle  or  snout  The  most  important  species  of  this  genus  is 
the  Cod  properly  so  culled, — Gadm  /tiorrhna, — a  fish  two  or 
three  feet  long,  with  a  gray  back  spotted  yellowish,  and  a  white 
belly.  Cods  are  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  the  ocean  be- 
tween the  fortieth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  north  latitude.  On  the 
coasts  of  Norway,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Iceland,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  waters  of  Newfoundland,  they  are  found  in  incalcu- 
lable numbers.  During  winter,  they  retire  to  the  depths  of  the 
sea  ;  but  in  the  warm  season,  the  necessity  of  casting  their  spawn 
and  of  providing  for  their  subsistence,  causes  them  to  approach 
the  shore,  and  fathomable  waters.  In  some  localities,  the  cod- 
fishery  is  conducted  with  seines  four  or  five  hundred  feet  in  length, 
but  generally  they  are  caught  with  a  hook  and  line,  baited  with 
herring,  the  gills  of  cod-fish,  &c.  A  skilful  fisherman  may  catch 
in  this  way,  four  hundred  cod-fishes  in  a  day.  The  fish  is  prepared 
in  different  ways  for  preservation  ;  when  simply  salted,  it  is  known 
in  commerce  as  green  cod ;  when  dried  without  being  salted,  it 
is  stockfish :  and  when  salted  and  dried  in  the  sun,  it  is  called 
dry  cod.  The  tongues,  salted  or  pickled  with  the  swimming- 
bladders,  are  much  esteemed,  and  known  under  the  titlo  of 
tongues  and  sounds.  "  The  sound  or  swimming-bladder  oi  the 
cod-fish,  if  rightly  prepared,  supplies  an  isinglass  equal  to  the 
best  Russian,  and  applicable  to  all  the  uses  for  which  the  imported 
is  employed."  The  liver  yields  a  large  quantity  of  pure,  limpid 
oil,  cod-liver-oif,  which,  in  many  respects,  and  for  most  purposes, 
is  superior  to  the  commonly  used  fish-oil. 

Catching  and  preparing  cod-fish  are  very  important  branches 
of  maritime  industry.  About  twelve  thousand  French,  and  a 
very  much  larger  number  of  English  and  American  fishermen  are 
yearly  engaged  in  this  business. 

5.  The  WHITINGS, — MerlanyiiSi—  have  the   same  number   of 
fins  as  the  cod,  but  no  cirri.     The  Common    Whiting, —  Gadus 

53^  merlanyvs, — (Fig.  53.)   which  is 

about  a  foot  long,  silvery  beneath, 
reddish  gray  or  olive  above,  may 
be  recognised  by  the  upper  jaw 
being  longer  than  the  lower :  it 
COMMON  WHITING.  inhabits  European  seas,  and  is 

4.  How  is  the  genus  of  Cods  recognised  ?     What  is  the  Cod  properly  so 
called  ?      Where  are  Cods  found  ?     How  are  they  caught  ?     What  is  Stock- 
1  *h  ?     What  are  tongues  and  sounds  ? 

5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Whiting  » 


H  AKE.— LING.—PL  A  1C  E. HI 

much  esteemed  for  the  lightness  of  its  delicate  flesh.  On  ti.e 
coast  of  Britany  it  is  salted  and  dried  like  the  cod. 

6.  The  HAKES, — Merlucchis, — have  no  cirri,  and  differ  from  the 
cods  in  the  number  of  their  fins ;  they  have  but  two  dorsal  tins, 
and  one  posterior  to  the   anus.     The  Common  Hake,  —  <*a<itis 
merlacfiius, — is  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  sometimes 
much  longer;  the  back  is  brown  gray;  the  anterior  dorsal  iin 
pointed ;  lower  jaw  longest.     The  Hake  is  taken  in  great  numbers, 
both  in  the  Mediterranean  and   Atlantic ;  it  is  usually  found  in 
pursuit  of  mackerel  shoals;  when  salted  and  dried,  it  receives,  in 
the  north,  the  name  of  stock- fish,  which  is  also  applied  to  the  cod. 

7.  The  Lings, — Lota, — have  a  greater  or  less  number  of  cirri, 
and  the  same  fins  as  the  Hakes.     They  are  almost  as  numerous 
as  the  cod  in  the  northern  seas      The  Common  Ling  differs  from 
other  Gadoides  in  the  almost  cylindrical  form  of  its  body,  in  its 
depressed  head  and  habits :  it  is  the  only  fish  of  this  family  that 
ascends  rivers  into  fresh  water.     Its  flesh  is  mucn  esteemed. 

8.  The  FAMILY  OF  PLEURONECTES,  comprises  what  are  vulgarly 
called  the  Flat-Fishes;  these  animals  have  the  body  very    much 
compressed  laterally, and  very  much  elevated  vertically;  but  what; 
especially  distinguishes  them  is  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  head, 
a  character  which  is  not  observed  in 

any  ether  vertebrate  animal,  (Fit/. 
54.)  Both  eyes  are  placed  on  the 
*ame  side,  which  is  always  upper- 
most when  the  animal  swims,  and  is 
always  deeply  coloured,  while  the 
opposite  side  is  always  whitish.  The 
4wo  sides  of  the  mouth  are  unequal, 
and  it  is  rare  to  find  both  pectoral  fins  FLAT-FISH. 

perfectly  alike  ;  the  dorsal  ftn  extends  along  the  whole  back;  the 
anal  fin  occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the  ventrals  seem 
Jo  be  continuous  with  it  in  front,  as  they  are  almost  united  one 
to  the  other.  They  want  the  swimming-bladder,  swim  on  the 
side,  and  seldom  quit  the  bottom. 

9.  The  principal  genera  of  this   family,  are  the   Plaice,   the 
Turbot,  and  the  Sole. 

10.  The   PLAICE, — Piatessa, — have   in   each   jaw,   a  row  o/ 
cutting,  and  obtuse  teeth  ;  most  generally,  the  pharyngeal  bone? 

6.  How  are  Hakes  characterised?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  con/ 
mon  Hake  ? 

7.  How  are  Lings  characterised? 

8.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  family  of  Pleuronectes  ? 

9.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  this  family  ? 
16    What  are  the  characters  of  Plaice  ? 


1 12  PL  AICE.— FLOUNDER.— HOLIBUT.— TURBOT. 

are  furnished  with  teeth  like  pebbles  ;  the  dorsal  fin  extends  as 
far  forward  as  a  point  above  the  upper  eye,  leaving  a  naked 
interval  between  it  and  the  caudal  fin ;  their  form  is  rhotnboidal, 
and  most  frequently  their  eyes  are  on  the  right  side. 

11.  The  (Jor/tmon  Plaice,, —  I'latessa  platessa, — is  easily  recog- 
nised by  six  or  seven  tubercles,  forming  a  straight   line  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head,  between  the  eyes,  and  by  the  pale  yellow 
spots  which  relieve  the  brown  on  the  same  side  of  the  body  ;  it  is 
three  times  as  long  as  it  is  high,  and  its  scales  are  thin  and  soft. 
Its  flesh  is  very  tender  and  much  esteemed  :  its  weight  sometimes 
reaches  sixteen  pounds.     It  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  France, 
and  abounds  on  those  of  Holland. 

12.  The  Flounder, —  Plotessn  Jlexus, — resembles  the  common 
plaice,  but  only  has  small  granules  between  the  eyes,  and  has  a 
small  rough  button  at  the  base  of  each  ray  of  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins.    It  inhabits  our  coast,  and  ascends  rivers.     In  many  indi- 
viduals the  eyes  are  on  the  left,  instead  of  the  right  side  of  the  head. 

13.  The  Limande,  or  Da//, —  Platessa  Limanda, — has   a   pro- 
jecting line  between  the  eyes,  and  a  body  which  is  comparatively 
higher  than  it  is  long.     Its  scales  are  rougher  than  in  any  of  the 
preceding  species,  from  which  circumstance  it  has   derived  its 
name,  (from  Lima,  a  file) ;  the  teeth  are  straighter;  and  the  side 
upon  which  the  eyes  are  placed  is  light  Jarown  with   some   faded 
brown  and  whitish  spots. 

14.  The  Halibut, —  Hippoglussus  vulyaris,  or  Platessa  Hippo- 
glomus, —  has  the  form  and  tins  of  a  Platessa,  but  the  jaws  and 
pharynx  are  armed  with  teeth,  which  are  most  commonly  strong 
and  pointed.     The  eyes  are  on  the  right  side.     It  is  a  voracious 
fish,  and  is  found  in  the  northern  seas,  and  our  own  coast.     It  is 
taken  with  a  line,  and  sometimes  weighs  five  hundred  pounds. 

J5.  The  Tin  but, —  Plahssa  maxi- 
mus, — has  a  rhomboidal  body,  almost 
as  high  as  it  is  long,  and  studded  on 
the  brown  side  with  small  tubercles; 
the  eyes  are  close  together,  and  there 
is  a  projecting  crest  between  them. 
It  is  probably  the  most  valuable  of 
the  flat-fishes,  and  excepting  the 
TURBOT<  holibut,  grows  larger  than  any  of 

the  others.     It  is  highly  prized  in  England.     It  is  also  met  with 

on  our  own  coast. 

1 1.  How  is  the  common  Plaice  recognised  ? 

12.  How  is  the  Flounder  characterised  ? 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Limande? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Holibut? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Turbot? 


SOLE.— SUCKIN(.--FISri. 113 

16.  SOLES, — Solea, — have  an  oblong  body,  a  round  projecting 
snout,  the  dorsal  extending  from  the  mouth  to  the  anal  fin,  and 
the  mouth  distorted  and  armed  with  teeth  on  one  side  only.    Tne 
Common  Siti'e, — Platessa  soleator  Sitleavulgatis, — is  olive  brown 
on  the  right  side  and  grayish  on  the  left.     It  is  found  on  our  own 
coast,  chiefly  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  is  an  excellent  fish. 

17.  The  FAMILY  OF  DISCOBOLI  is  composed  of  a  small  number 
of  Subbranchian  Malacopterygians,  which  have  the  ventral  tins 
united  in  form  of  a  disk.     It  includes  two  genera,  in  which  are 
placed  the  Lump-Fish,  and  Lump  Sucker. 

18.  The  FAMILY  OF  ECHENEIS,  formed  of  a  single  genus,  is  re- 
markable among  all  fishes  for  a  flattened  disk,  which  covers  the 

p.     ,.5          head,   (  Fig.  56.  )  it    is   composed  of  a   certain 
number    of   moveable,    transverse   cartilaginous 
plates,    standing  obliquely    backwards,    by    the 
assistance  of  which,  the  animal  can  attach  itself 
to  different  bodies  to  which  it  applies  this  singular 
instrument      By  this  means,  it  often  attaches  itself 
to  rocks,  to  vessels,  and  to  other  fishes,   particu- 
TIIK  DISK  OF  A.    Jarly  to  the  shark.     A  species,  which  lives  in  the 
RKMORA.         Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  has   been  long 
celebrated  under  the  name  of  Remora,  or  Sucking- Fish,  (Fig.  57.) 
and    its  history  is  loaded  Fig.  57. 

with  fable.  It  was  pre- 
tended that  this  fish  lived 
by  a  species  of  suction, 
which  it  exerted  by  means 

of  the    disk,    (Fig.    56.)  THE  KEMORA. 

above  mentioned,  and  the  power  of  arresting  the  fastest  sailing 
vessel  in  her  course,  was  attributed  to  it.  A  species,  similar  to 
the  preceding,  is  very  common  in  the  waters  of  the  Isle  of  France, 
and  it  appears  that,  on  the  coast  of  Caffraria,  it  is  employed  in 
fishing,  setting  it  off  in  pursuit  of  fishes,  and  drawing  it  in  by  a 
line  attached  to  the  tail,  as  soon  as  it  has  fixed  itself  to  its  prey. 

ORDER  OF  MALACOPTERYGII  APODA. 

19-  All  the  fishes  of  this  order  have  an  elongated  form,  a  thick 
soft,  and  but  slightly  scaly  skin  ;  but  their  chief  characteristic  is 
their  want  of  ventral  fins.  They  form  a  single  natural  family, 
ANGUILLIFORMES,  which  is  composed  of  the  tribe  of  eels,  gymnotus, 
&c.  &c 

1 6.  What  are  the  characters  of  Soles  ? 

17.  How  is  the  family  of  Discoboli  characterised  ? 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Remora  ? 

19.  How  are  Apodous  Malacopterygians  characterised  ? 


114  EELS. 


20.  Fishes  of  the  tribe  of  Anguilliformes,  have  a  long,  slender 
body,  and  the  scales,  as  it  were,  incrusted   in  a  thick,  fat    skin ; 
Hie  operculum  is  small,  surrounded  by  the  branchiostegous  rays, 
in  form  of  a  circle,  which  are  enveloped  in  the  skin,    and  open 
very  far  back  by  a  hole  or  sort  of  tube,  an  arrangement  which 
affords  better  protection  to  the  gills,  and  enables  these  fishes  to 
remain  sometime  out  of  water  without  perishing. 

21.  EELS,  —  Murcena. — are  characterised    by   having  pectoral 
fins,  and  the  openings  of  the  gills  beneath  them.     Those  which 
have  the  dorsal  and  caudal  fins  prolonged  around  the  end  of  the 
tail,  so  as  to  form  a  pointed  caudal  fin,  are  designated  under  the 
name  of  EELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  and  are  again  subdivided  into 
COMMON  EELS,  and  CONGER  EELS,  according  as   the  dorsal   fin 
commences  far  from,  or  near  to  the  pectoral  fins. 

22.  Common  Eel*,— Jlnyui/la, — are  too  well  known  to  require 
description.     Their  colour  varies  acording  to  age,   and,   as   it 
appears,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  water  in  which  they  dwell. 
Those  that  inhabit  limpid  waters  have  a  greenish  back,  striped 
brown,  and  a  white  or  silvery  belly,  while  those  that  are  caught 
in  the  mud  are  ordinarily  blackish  brown  above,  and  yellowish 
beneath.     Eels  are  very  voracious   and  extremely   agile;  they 
swim  equally  well  backward  and  forward,  and    their  skin  is  so 
slippery  that  it  is  difficult  to  hold  them.     During  a  great  part  of 
their  life  they  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  frequent  ponds  and   seas, 
as  well  as  rivers.     By  day,  they  almost  always  keep  buried   in 
the  mud  or  lie  concealed  in  holes,  they  excavate  near  the  shore. 
These  holes  are  sometimes  very  extensive,   and   lodge  a   great 
number  of  eels;  but,  in  general,  their  diameter  is  small,  and  they 
open  externally   at   both   ends,  which  enables    the    animal   to 
escape  more  readily  when  threatened  by  danger.     When  the 
season   is  very  warm,  and  the  stagnant  waters   of  the   pools 
begin  to  putrify,  the  eels  leave  the  bottom   and  conceal  them- 
selves in  the  herbage  of  the  shore,  or  even  cross   the   land  in 
search  of  a  more  favourable  locality :  they  can,  in  fact,  crawl  on 
the  ground  like  serpents,  and  remain  a  considerable  time  in  the 
air   without  perishing.     Ordinarily    they   make  these  singular 
journeys  during  the  night;  and  when  it  is  extremely  dry,  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  and  continue  there  until  the  water 
returns.     The  length  of  time  they   can   remain   there   without 
perishing  is  surprising.     These  fishes  have  been  known  to  remain 

20    What  are  the  characters  of  the  Anguilliformes? 
£1.  How  are  Eels  characterised  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  common  Eels  ?     What  are  their  Habits  * 
Are  they  natives  of  salt  or  fresh  water  ? 


ELECTRIC  F.KL.  115 


for  months  and  even  years  in  the  mud  of  dried  up  pools,  or  in 
holes  destitute  of  water,  and  nevertheless,  regain  their  activity,  the 
moment  they  were  placed  in  their  native  element.  This  is  not 
the  only  circumstance  under  which  these  fishes  display  their  re- 
markable tenacity  of  life.  They  may  be  deprived  of  their  skin, 
and  their  viscera,  an  \  be  cut  in  pieces,  without  depriving  the 
trunk  of  their  body  of  the  power  of  yet  moving  for  some  time. 
In  early  life,  they  inhabit  the  sea,  and  in  the  spring  the  young 
eels  ascend  rivers  to  dwell  in  fresh  water,  which,  when  full 
grown,  they  abandon  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sea. 

23.  The  name  of  Conyer  Eels  is  applied  to  eels  that  differ  very 
little  from  common  eels,  except  that  they  are  of  large  size,  and 
always  dwell  in  the  sea  or  salt  water. 

24.  MUR.ENJE   PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  —  Mnrcena, — are  entirely 
without  pectoral  fins,  and  their  branchiae  open  on  each  side  by  a 
small  hole.     The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Muraeita  helena, 
which  attains  more  than  three  feet  in   length,   and   is  marbled 
throughout  with  brown  and  yellowish  ;  it  is  widely  spread  over 
the   Mediterranean,    and    was    very    highly   esteemed    by    the 
ancients.     The  Romans  reared  them  in  great  numbers,  in   their 
magnificent  fish-ponds,  decorated  them  with  jewels,  and    taught 
them  to  come  at  the  sound  of  their  master's  voice.     Hirrius  was 
the  first  to  consecrate  fish-ponds  exclusively  to    muraense,  and 
he  caused  six  thousand  of  these  fishes  to  be  served  up    at   an 
entertainment,  given  to  Caesar  when  he  was  named  dictator. 

25.  The  GYMNOTI,  which  have  the  gills  partially  closed  by  a 
membrane,  but  opening  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins,  also  belong 
to  this  order.     The  Gymnoti  properly 

so  called, — Gyntnottis,— have,  like  the 
other  fishes  of  this  division,  a  ventral 
fin,  which  extends  under  the  greater 
part  of  the  body,  but  they  want  the 
fins  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  their 
skin  is  without  perceptible  scales. 
They  inhabit  the  rivers  of  South 
America,  and  one  of  them,  the  Elec- 
tric Ei-.l,  —  GymiLotus  electricns—(  Fig. 
58  ,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  GYMNOTUS  ELECTRICUS. 

£3.  What  are  Conger  Eels  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  Muraense  properly  so  called?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Muroense  helena  ? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Gymnoti  properly  so  called  ?     What 
are  the  characters  of  the  electric  Eel?     Where  is  it  found  ?     What  are  it* 
hubits  ? 

2Q 


116  FLEGTRTC  EEL. 


violent  electric  shocks  it  has  the  power  of  communicating  at  will, 
and  in  the  direction  it  pleases  This  tish  acquires  five  or  six  feet  in 
length,  (F>(j.  58.) ;  its  bofly  is  elongated,  and  of  the  same  size 
throughout,  and  its  skin  is  imbued  with  a  gluey  matter  :  it  is  very 
common  in  the  small  rivulets  and  lak°s,  and  met  with  here  and 
there  on  the  immense  planes  situate  between  the  Cordillera,  the 
Oronoco,  and  Banda-Oriental,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  Apure, 
Oronoco,  Meta,  &c  The  electric  shocks  which  it  gives,  are 
sufficiently  powerful  to  knock  down  men  and  horses,  and  the 
Gymnotus  resorts  to  this  means  of  defending  itself  against  its 
enemies,  and  to  kill  at  a  distance,  fis  es  upon  which  it  feeds;  for 
water,  as  well  as  metals,  transmits  the  benumbing  shock  of  this 
singular  animal,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  lightning  rod  con- 
ducts the  electricity  of  the  clouds  from  the  atmosphere  to  the 
earth  Its  first  discharges  of  electricity  are  generally  feeble;  but 
when  it  is  irritated  and  agitated,  they  become  more  and  more 
powerful,  and  are  then  terrible.  When  it  has  thus  given  repeated 
shocks,  it  becomes  exhausted,  and  requires  a  greater  or  less 
period  of  rest  before  it  regains  its  power  It  is  said,  that  it 
employs  this  time  in  charging  its  electric  organs,  and  that  the 
Americans  avail  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to  capture  it 
without  danger.  To  catch  the  gymnoti,  they  drive  into  the  pools 
inhabited  by  these  fishes,  wild  horses,  which,  receiving  the  first 
shocks,  are  soon  benumbed,  and  thrown  down  or  even  killed  ; 
then  they  obtain  the  exhausted  gymnoti  with  nets,  or  a  harpoon. 

26.  The  electric  apparatus  of  the  gymnotus  extends  all  along 
the  back  and  tail,  and  consists  of  four  longitudinal  fasciculi,  com- 
posed  of  a   great    number    of  membranous    plates,    which   are 
parallel  and  very  close  together,  and  arranged  almost  horizontally 
and  united  by  an  infinity  of  other  smaller  lamella   placed    verti- 
cally crosswise:  the  little  prismatic  and  transverse  cells,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  these  lamenaB,  are  filled  by  a  gelatinous  matter : 
the  whole  apparatus  is  supplied  with  very  large  nerves. 

ORDER    OF    LOPHOBRANCHIL 

27.  This  order  i-s  distinguished  by  the  branchiae,    which,   in 
place  of  being  pectinate,  that  is,  having  the  form  of  comb-teeth, 
as  is  ordinarily  the  case,    are  divided  into  small   round  tufts, 
arranged  in  pairs  along  the  branchial  arches.     They  are  enclosed 
under  a  large  operculum,  which  is  attached   on   all  sides   by   a 
membrane,  leaving  only  a  small  hole  for  the  escape  of  water, 

26.  What  is  the  situation  o^  the  electric  apparatus    of  the   Gymnotus? 
What  are  the  characters  of  this  apparatus7 

k«J7.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  order  of  Lophobranchii  ? 


HIPPOCAMPUS.— PIODON. H7 

and  in  its  thickness  we  find  only  vestiges  of  branchiostegous 
rays.  These  fishes  are  also  recognised  by  the  mail-like  plates 
which  cover  the  body,  and  render  it  almost  always  angular. 
They  are  generally  small.  ,-,.  _„ 

28.  To^this  order    belongs  the 
Hippoc'impHSi  (/•'"/.  59.)  the  body 
of  which  is  laterally  compressed, 
and  more  elevated  than    the  tail ; 

on   curling   up,    after   death,    the  HIP,OCAMPUS. 

head  and  trunk  bear  some  resem- 
blance tcTthe  neck  of  a  horse  in  miniature,  which  has   obtained 
for  this  little  fish  the  common  name  of  Sea-/torse. 

ORDER    OF    PLECTOGXATHI. 

29.  The  fishes  composing  this  group  form  the  connecting  link 
Detween  the  ordinary  and  cartilaginous  fishes,  as    much    by  the 
conformation  of  their  jaws,  as  by  the  tardy  consolidation  of  their 
skeleton.     Their  chief  distinctive  character  is,  that  the  maxillary, 
is  solidly  fixed  upon  the  side  of  the  intermaxillary  bone,  which 
alone  forms  the  jaw,  and  that  the  palatine  arch  articulates    with 
the  cranium,  in  a  manner  which  renders  it  immoveable.     More- 
over, their  opercula  and  branchiostegous  rays  are  concealed  be- 
neath a  thick  skin,  which  leaves  externally  only  a  small  branchial 
slit;  they  have  no  true  ventral  tins;  and  they  have  only  vestiges 
of  ribs.     This  order  comprises  two  families,  recognisable  by  the 
opening   of  their  mouth,    namely :    the    Gymnodvufcs,   and  tne 
Sclvi'ixlt  niti. 

30.  In  the  FAMILY  OF  OYMNODONTES,    there   are    no   apparent 
teeth  ;  but  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  species  of  ivory    beak, 
internally  divided    into    plates,    which    represent   the   teeth      It 
includes  the  Diod'w,  the  V'r/mr/oM,  the  Mole,  <fec. 

31.  The   DIODON    has    received  this   name,  because  the  jaws, 
being    undivided,    have  each    but   a   single  piece,   while  in  the 
TBTRADON,  they  are  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  suture,  so  as  to 
present  the  appearance  of  four  teeth  :  two  above,  and  two  below. 
These  two  genera  of  fishes  have  the    faculty    of  swelling  them- 
selves up  like  a  balloon,  by  swallowing  air,  and  thus  distending 
a  first,  very  extensible  stomach,  which  occupies  the  whole  length 
of  the  abdomen.     This   peculiarity  has  obtained    for   them   the 

28    What  is  the  Hippocampus  ? 

29.  What  are  the  characters  or  the  o-der  of  Plectognathi  ? 

30.  How  are  Gymnodontes  characterised? 

31.  How  does  the   Diodon    differ   from    the    Tetradon  ?     What  are   tho 
peculiarities  of  these  two  genera? 


1J8 SUN.FISH.— TRUNK-FISrT. 

common  names  of  Swell-Fish,  Porcupine- Fish,  Ua/Juoti-Fish, 
/j/owcr,  &c.,  and  furnishes  them  with  a  means  of  defence  ;  for, 
when  the  skin  is  distended,  the  spines  with  which  it  is  armed, 
become  every  where  erect,  and  bristle  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body  ;  and  when  they  are  thus  swelled,  they  turn  over,  the  belly 
corning  uppermost,  and  they  float  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  with- 
out the  power  of  directing  their  course.  They  are  found  in  the 
tropical  seas,  and  on  the  North  American  coast. 

32.  The  SUN-FISHES,  or  MOLES, — Ce,  hatus, — sometimes  called 
Motm-Hshes,  resemble  the  Diodon,  in  the  arrangement  of  their 
jaws;  but  their  body  which  is   compressed,    and    of  a   strange 
shape,  has  no  spines,  nor  is  it  susceptible  of  inflation ;  and  their 
tail  »s  so  short  and  so  high  vertically,  they   appear  like   fishes 
having  the  posterior  part  cut  off.     One  species,  which  sometimes 
attains    more   than    four  feet   in    length,    weighing   over   three 
hundred  pounds,  inhabits  the  coast  of  France. 

33.  The   FAMILY  OF  SCLERODERMI,    is  easily  distinguished  by 
the  conical  or  pyramidal  snout,  prolonged    from   the    eyes,  and 
terminated  by  a  small  mouth,  armed   with    a   small    number    of 
distinct  teeth.     The  skin  is  generally  rough,  or  covered   with 
hard  scales. 

34.  Some  of  them,  named  BALISTES,  have  a  compressed   body 
covered  by  a  scaly  or  granular  skin,  but  not  osseous:  they  have 
eight  teeth,  generally  trenchant,  arranged  in  a  single  row  in  each 
jaw,  and  two  dorsal  tins.     They  are  found  in  great  numbers    in 
the  torrid  zone. 

35.  Others,  called  TRUNK-FISHES, — Osfrficion, — have,  in  place 
of  scales,  (Fig.  60.)  regular,  bony  compartments  or  plates,  united 

Fig.  60.  into  a  kind  of  inflexible  coat  of  mail, 

which  covers  the  head  and  body,  so 
that  they  can  only  move  the  tail,  the 
tins,  the  mouth,  and  a  kind  of  small 
lip,  around  the  edge  of  their  gills, 
which  pass  through  holes  in  this 
TRUNK  FISH.  cuirasse ;  each  jaw  is  armed  with 

ten  or  twelve  conical  teeth.  They  are  found  on  the  coast  o/ 
the  United  States 


.32.  How  are  Sun-fishes  characterised  ? 

33.  How  is  the  family  of  Sclerodermi  distinguished? 

34.  How  are  the  Balistes  characterised? 

35.  What  are  the  characters  of  Trunk  fishes? 


STRUCTURE  OF  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.  119 

LESSON    IX.      ' 

DIVISION    OF    CARTILAGINOUS    FISHES,    OR    CHONDROPTERYGIANS. — 

Oiyanizntiou. 

ORDER  OP  STURIONSS.  —Sturgeons. — Caviar. —  fish-glue. 
ORDER  OF  SELACHII. — Shark*. — Satv-Jish. —  Rays. —  Torpedo. 
ORDER  OP  CYCLOSTOMI. — Lampreys. 

DIVISION  OF  CHONDROPTERYGII,  OR  CARTILAGINOUS 
FISHES. 

The  Chondropterygians  differ  in  many  respects  from  all  the 
fishes  we  have  spoken  of,  and  are  less  uniform  in  their  structure. 
Some  of  them  have  organs  even  more  complicated  than  the  last, 
and  approximate  more  to  the  reptiles,  while  others  form  a  sort  of 
connecting  link,  between  the  vertebrata  and  inferior  classes  of 
animals. 

1.  Their  skeleton  is  essentially  cartilaginous:  it  is  not  formed 
of  bony  fibres,  anJ  the  calcareous  matter  that  hardens  on  its 
surface,  is  only  deposited  in  small  grains  Sometimes  the  skeleton 
is  only  membranous,  and  it  is  always  more  simple  in  its  confor- 
mation than  that  of  the  osseous  rishes.  It  is  also  remarked,  there 
is  a  resemblance  between  it  and  the  cartilaginous  skeleton  of  the 
tadpole.  The  cranium  is  not  divided  by  sutures,  and  is  composed 
of  a  single  piece,  shaped  in  other  respects  very  much  like  the 
skull  of  an  ordinary  Hsh.  The  uppei  jaw  is  formed  of  pieces 
analogous  to  the  palate  bones  and  vorner ;  the  maxillary  and 
intermaxillary  bones  do  not  exist,  or  are  found  only  in  a  rudi- 
mentary state,  concealed  beneath  the  skin  The  lower  jaw  is 
constituted  of  one  piece  on  each  side,  and  the  opercular  apparatus 
is,  in  general,  entirely  wanting.  The  vertebral  column  is  some- 
times formed,  in  a  great  part,  of  a  single  tube,  pierced  on  each 
side  for  the  passage  of  nerves,  but  not  divided  into  distinct 
vertebrae ;  frequently  too,  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  pierced 
through  and  through,  so  that  the  gelatinous  substance,  which  tills 
the  spaces  betwixt  these  bones,  forms  a  continuous  cord.  The 
disposition  of  the  bones  of  the  shoulder,  of  the  pelvis,  and  fins, 
varies  The  hyoid  apparatus,  which  supports  the  branchiae,  is, 
in  general,  much  the  same  as  it  is  in  ordinary  fishes;  but. 
towards  the  termination  of  this  series  or  division,  the  branchial 
arches  are  wanting,  and  the  branchiae  are  only  attached,  on  the 


1.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  skeleton  of  cartilaginous  fishes? 
there  any  thing  peculiar  in  the  arrangement  of  their  branchiae  ? 
2Q* 


120  STURGEOXS. 


internal  side,  to  the  parietes  of  a  membranous  canal.  Remark- 
able modifications  in  the  mode  of  organization  of  these  organs 
are  observed.  Sometimes  the  branchiae  are  free  on  the  external 
edge,  as  in  the  osseous  fishes;  sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  attached  by  both  edges,  and  this  difference  furnishes  a  basis 
for  the  division  of  cartilaginous  fishes  into  two  groups :  the 
Choiidrojjteryyi'-'iis  with  jrte  branchiae,  which  constitute  a  single 
order,  and  the  Chttndroplerygiau*  with  fixed  branchiae,  which 
form  two  orders,  the  Schichii,  and  Cyclustomi. 

ORDER  OF   CHONDROPTERYGH    BRANCHIZS    LIBERIA 
OR    STURIONES, 

2.  The  Sturiones,  or  Chondropterygians  with  free   branchiae, 
of  which  the  Sturgeon  is  the  type,  resemble  ordinary  fishes  in  the 
disposition  of  their  gills,  as  well  as  in  their  free   branchia3 ;  they 
have,  on  each  side,  a  single  branchial  opening,  furnished  with  an 
operculum,  but  which  wants  the  rays. 

3.  The  STURGEONS,  —  Jlcipeitser,  —  have  the  general   form  of 
osseous  fishes,  and,  in  the  structure  of  their  skeleton,   form  the 
connecting    link    between    them    and    the  Chondropterygians; 
for  many    bones   of  their   head  and   shoulders   are  completely 
hardened  and,  as  it  were    stony  on  the  surface.     Their    upper 
jaw  is  composed  of  the  palate  bones  solidly  attached  to  the  maxil- 
lary bones,  and  vestiges  of  intermaxillary  bones  are  found  in  the 
substance  of  the  lips.     The  body  is  more  or  less  covered  with 
plates  imbedded  in  the  skin  in  longitudinal  rows;  their  mouth  is 
small  and  unprovided  with  teeth ;  the  dorsal  fin  is   situated  be- 
hind the  ventral,  and  above  the  anal  fin  ;  the  caudal  fin  surrounds 
the   extremity   of  the  tail,  and   has  a  projecting  lobe  beneath. 
These  fishes  are  generally  large,  and  endowed    with    very   con- 
siderable muscular  strength  :  they   easily  stem  the  most  rapid 
current,  and  can  strike  violent  blows  with  their   tail ;  but  their 
habits  are  ordinarily  peaceful,  and  they  are  formidable   only  to 
small,  or  badly  armed  fishes ;  they  feed  on  herrings,  mackerels, 
sometimes  salmons,  and  they  have  been  seen  to  root  in  the  mud 
with  their  nose,  in  pursuit  of  worms  and  mollusks.     In  the  spring 
they  ascend  certain  rivers  from  the  sea,  often  in  numerous  shoahs, 
to  deposit  their  eggs.     Their  fecundity  is    very   great ;  we   are 
assured  that  1 ,500,000  eggs  have  been  found  in  one  female  that 
weighed  278  pounds,  and  in  another,  weighing  2800  pounds,  the 
eggs  by   themselves,  weighed    800  pounds.     The   young  ones 

2.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sturiones  ? 

3.  Whd'.  are  the  characters  of  Sturgeons?     What  is  Caviar?     What  is 
i  <:hthy  ocolla '/ 


STURGEONS. 


appear  to  seek  the  sea  very  early,  and  remain  until  full  grown. 
The  flesh  of  most  of  these  fishes  is  agreeable,  and  there  is  pre- 
pared from  their  eggs  a  food,  which  is  very  much  esteemed  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  known  under  the  name  of  cai'iar;  and  it  is 
chiefly  from  their  swimming-bladder  that  fisk-ylue,  or  icktkyocolla 
is  prepared. 

4.  Many  species  of  sturgeons  are  known;  they  are  found  in> 
western  Europe  and  North  America;  but  it  is  particularly  in  the 
great  rivers  of  the  eastern  part  of  Europe,  and  the  north  of  Asia, 
that  they  abound,  and  give  rise   to   important   fisheries.     The 
Common  Stiirycon,  —  Jlcipi'.nser  sturio,  —  is  six  or  seven  feet  long, 
with  a  pointed  snout,  and  five   rows  of  strong,    spiny  plates  :  it 
enters  the  large  rivers  of  France  about  the  month  of  April,  and 
ascends  in  numerous  shoals,  the   Danube,   the  Don,  and  many 
other  streams  that  flow  into  the  Caspian    Sea.     This  species  is 
found  in  the   waters  of  the  United    States.     The   Huusen,  or 
Great   Sturgeon,  —  J$cipeu*er  kugo,  —  (  Fie/.  61.)  which  attains 
from   twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and   often    weighs   more 
than    twelve    hun-  Fiq*  61. 

dred  pounds,  and 
sometimes  even  as 
much  as  three 
thousand  is  some- 
times seen  in  the 

Po  :  but  generally,  ™K  GREAT 

it  only  frequents  the  Danube,  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  other  rivers 
which  empty  into  the  same  seas.  It  enters  them  in  shoals,  from 
the  end  of  winter,  and,  immediately  after  spawning,  returns  to 
the  sea,  where  it  is  soon  followed  by  its  young.  Its  flesh  is  less 
esteemed  than  that  of  the  common  sturgeon  ;  but  it  is  chiefly 
from  its  eggs  and  its  swimming-bladder  that  caviar,  and  icktkyo- 
colla are  prepared.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  its  blunter 
tubercles  or  plates,  its  shorter  snout,  and  smoother  skin.  The 
Ste.tl-t,  or  Little  Stnrijcou,  —  JUt'.ippnserpyf/iiue'r*,  —  which  seldom 
exceeds  two  feet  in  length,  and  which  has  its  plates  arranged  in 
more  numerous  rows  than  the  preceding  species,  also  inhabits 
the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  :  its  flesh 
H  said  to  be  delicate  ;  it  is  probably  the  clops  and  acipenser  so 
celebrated  among  the  Romans. 

5.  We  give  the  name  of  Polyodon,  —  Spatularia,  —  to  certain 
fishes   of  the   Mississippi   river,    which   bear   some  analogy   to 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Sturgeon/     What   are   the 
characters   of  the   great   Sturgeon?     Where    is    it   found?     What  is  th* 
Sterlet? 

5.  What  is  the  Polyodon  ? 

10 


122 ORDER  OF  SELACHIL 

sturgeons  :  they  are  remarkable  for  an  enormous  prolongation 
oi  the  muzzle,  to  which  its  wide  borders  give  the  figure  of  a  leaf. 
The  mouth  is  well  cleft,  and  furnished  with  numerous  small 
teeth. 

6.  The  Chimceras  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  preceding 
and  the  sharks,  which  they  resemble  in  the  general  form   of  the 
body. 

CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  FIXIS. 

7.  The  Chondropterygians  with  fixed  branchiae,   which   form 
the  two  orders  of  Selachii  and  Cyclostomi,  possess  a    very   re- 
markable   character   in    the   arrangement   of  their    respiratory 
apparatus,  which  is  common  to  them  all.     Instead  of  having  the 
branchiae  free  on  the  external  edge,  and  suspended  in  a  common 
cavity,  from  which  the  water  escapes  by  a  single  opening,   they 
have  them,  on  the  contrary,  adherent  to  the  integuments,  so  that, 
for  the  escape  of  the  water  that  laves  them,  there  is  required  as 
many  openings  as  there  are  intervals  betwixt  them  ;  sometimes, 
however,   they    empty    into   a  common    canal,  which  serves  to 
transmit  the  water  externally  ;  and  their  cartilaginous  arches,  often 
suspended  in  the  flesh,  are  placed  opposite  to  the  external  edges 
of  the  branchiae.     In  other  respects  these  fishes  differ  very  much 
from  each  other,  and  are  divided  into  two  orders,  according   as 
they  are  provided  with  moveable  jaws  of  the  ordinary   form,  or 
according  as  these  organs  are  solidly  united  into  an  immove- 
able  ring,  only  suited  for  suction.     The  first  are  the  Selachii,  and 
the  second  the  Cycloxtomi. 


ORDER   OF    SELACHII. 

? 

8.  This  order  comprises  the  greatest  number  of  cartilaginous 
fishes,  Rays  and  Sharks,  for  example.  Their  external  form 
varies;  they  have  pectoral  fins;  ventral  fins  situate  on  the 
abdomen  near  the  anus;  five  branchial  openings  in  the  form  of 
slits,  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  or  on  its  inferior  face,  and  the  jaws 
are  armed  with  teeth.  In  a  great  many  of  these  fishes,  there  is 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  two  openings,  called  venfs,  or 
xpiracles,  which  lead  to  the  branchia?,  and  serve  to  carry  off  the 
water,  necessary  to  respiration,  when  the  throat  of  the  animal  is 

6.  What  are  Chirngeras? 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  Chondropterygians  with  fixed  branchiae  ? 
What  are  the  peculiarities  of  their  branchiae  ? 

8.  How  is  the  order  of  Selachii  characterised  ? 


SHARKS. 


distended  by  a  voluminous  prey  Some  of  them  are  ovo-oivii;a* 
rojts,  and  others  lay  eggs  covered  by  a  hard,  horny  shell.  It  is 
divided  into  sharks,  saiu-fishes,  rays,  &c. 

9.  The  SHARKS,  —  St/iialides,—  constitute  a  large  tribe,  recog- 
nisable by  their  general  form,  which  differs  but  little  from  that  of 
ordinary  fishes.     Their  body  is   elongated,  the  tail   stout   and 
fleshy,  and  the  pectoral  fins  of  moderate  size.     Their   eyes  are 
situate  as  usual,  on  the  sides  of  the  head;  their  muzzle  presents 
nothing  remarkable,   and  the   openings  of  their   branchiae   are 
found   upon   the   sides   of  the   neck ;    the   shoulder   bones   are 
suspended   in   the   flesh,    without    articulating   either   with   the 
cranium  or  vertebral  column,  and  the  skin  is  rough   and  their 
flesh  coriaceous.     Most  of  them  attain  a  large  size,  and  are  very 
voracious. 

10.  The  Rousseltes, — Scyllium, — are  distinguished  from  other 
Squali,  by  a  short,  obtuse  snout,  by  the  nostrils  being  pierced 
near  the  mouth,  and  surrounded  by  a  groove  which  extends   to 
the  lip.     These  fishes  are  provided  with  spiracles  and   an    anal 
fin  ;  their  dorsals  are  behind  it,  and  the  caudal  is  elongated,  not 
forked  and  truncated  at  the  end;  their   branchial   openings  are 
situate  partly  under  the  pectorals.     There  are  two  large   species 
on  the  coast  of  France,  the    Great    Roussette,   or    Sea~  L)og,  — 
Squaliis  canicula, — (Fifh  62  )  which  is 

also  found  on  the  American  coast,  at- 
tains three  or  four  feet  in  length,  and 
the  Rock- Shark,  —  Sqnahis  cutulus. 
The  skin  of  these  fishes,  which  is 
studded  with  a  multitude  of  small, 
stony  tubercles,  becomes  very  rough 
on  drying,  and  is  then  employed  in  the  arts  for  polishing  hard 
bodies,  such  as  ivory. 

11.  Sharks   properly  so   called    have  the   nostrils  without   a 
groove,  and  situate  under  the  muzzle,  which  is  prominent.     The 
caudal  fin  is  more  or  less  forked.     Some  of  them  have  spiracles, 
and  in  others  they  are  wanting. 

12.  The  genus  Carcharias,  have  no  spiracles,  and    are    pro- 
vided with  an  anal  fin  ;  their  muzzle  is  depressed  and  the  mouth 
is  strongly  armed  with  pointed,  trenchant  teeth,  which  are  gene- 
rally dentate  on  the  edges. 

9  What  are  the  characters  of  Sharks? 

10.  How  are  Roussettes  distinguished  from  othsr  Sharks? 

1 1  How  are  Sharks  properly  so  called  characterised  ? 

l!2.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Carcharias? 


124 


SAW-FISHED— RAYS. 


Fig.  63. 


SHARK  S    HEAD. 


13.  The    While  Shark) — Squaluis  carchurias^ — which   attains? 
twenty  five  or  thirty  feet  in  length,  is  celebrated  for  its   ferocity. 
Its  vast  mouth,  (Fig.  63.)  is  furnished  with  triangular,  moveable 

teeth,  the  number  of  which  increases  with 
age.  In  the  young,  we  see  but  a  single 
row  ;  but,  in  the  adult,  we  find  six.  The 
strength  of  this  fish  is  very  great,  and  its 
motions  rapid ;  its  voracity  knows  no 
bounds ;  hence,  it  is  among  the  most 
dangerous  animals  Men  frequently  be- 
come the  prey  of  sharks,  and  as  many 
as  eight  or  ten  tunnies  have  been  some- 
times found  in  its  belly,  f-eals,  tunnies, 
and  cods,  are  their  ordinary  food;  but 
they  attack  dead  bodies,  and  even  devour 
each  other.  It  appears  they  are  found  in 
every  sea ;  but  voyagers  often  confound 
with  the  carcharias,  other  species  of  sharks 
with  cutting  teeth. 

14.  The   SAW-FISHES, —  Pruttis,  —  unite   to   the  form    of  the 
sharks,  a  body  flattened  in  front,  with  branchial  openings  beneath, 
as  in  the  Rays,  but  they  are  especially  distinguished  by  a  very  Jong 
snout,  depressed  in  form  of  a  sword-blade,  armed  on  each  side 
with  strong  bony  spines,  which  are  pointed  and  trenchant     This 
beak,  from  which  they  derive  their  name,  is  a  powerful  weapon, 
with  which  they  do  not  fear  to  attack  the  largest  whales.    The  true 
teejh  of  their  jaws  are  like  small  pebbles,  (Pig.  47,  Page  94.) 

15.  The  Common  Saw-fish,—  Sqiialns  pristi*, — which  is  found 
in  almost  every  sea,  attains  a  length  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet.     Its 
skin  is  tuberculous,  of  a  very  dark  gray  on  the  back,  ash-colour 
on  the  sides,  and  whitish  under  the  belly. 

16.  The  RAYS, —  Raid, — form    a   large  tribe.     Fishes  of  this 
genus  are  recognised  by  their  body  being  horizontally  flattened, 
and  similar  to  a  disk,  a  conformation  which  is  principally  due  to 
the  disposition  of  their  pectoral  fins,  which  are  extremely  broad 
and  fleshy,  and  are  joined  to  each  other  in  front  or  to  the  muzzle, 
and  extend  backwards  on  both  sides  of  the  abdomen,  nearly  to 
the  base  of  the  ventral  fins;  the  eyes  as  well  as  the  spiracles  are 
placed  on  the  dorsal  face :  the  mouth,  the  nostrils,  and  the  open- 
ings of  the  branchia3  are  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  ;   and 


13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  White  Shark? 

14.  How  are  Saw-fishes  distinguished? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Saw-fish  ? 
1  $.  How  is  the  genus  of  Rays  recognised  ? 


TORPEDO.  125 


the  dorsal  fins  are  almost  always  upon  the  tail,  which  is  very 
slender.  This  group  is  divided  into  Rays  properly  so  called, 
Tofpidoe*,  &c. 

17.  The  Rays  properly  so  called-, —  Raia, — have  the  body  of  a 
rhomboidal  form,  a  slender  tail,  fine  teeth,  &c.     Our  coast   fur- 
nishes many  species,  such  as  the  Skate,  Sting- Ray,  &c. 

18.  The   TORPEDOES,  or  ELECTRIC  RAYS, —  Torpedo, — have   a 
short,  but  fleshy  tail.     The   body   is   smooth    and  in  form   of  a 
nearly  circular  disk,  the  anterior  border  of  which  is-  formed   by 
two  prolongations  of  the  snout,  which,  on  each  side  go   to   join 
the    pectoral    tins,  and   leave  between   these          p-     Q^ 
organs,  and  the  head  and  branchiae,  an  oval  ' 
space   (  Fig.   64.)   in    wnich   is   lodged    the  ' 'a 
electric  apparatus  of  these  fishes.     This  appa- 

ratus  consists  of  a  multitude  of  vertical,  mem- 
branous tubes,  placed  close  together  like  the 
cells  of  a  honey-comb,  subdivided  by  hori- 
zontal partitions  into  small  cells  filled  with 
mucus,  and  supplied  by  numerous  large 
branches  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve.  In  these 
singular  organs  is  produced  the  electricity,  by 
aid  of  which  torpedoes  communicate  electric 
shocks  to  those  who  touch  them,  a  faculty 
possessed  by  the  malapteruri,  (Page  103.)  and  TORPEDO^ 
gymnoti,(f«7ell5.)but  which,  in  these  last,  is  seattJ  in  a  different 
structure.  These  fishes  are  less  powerful  than  the  gymnoti,  but 
can  nevertheless,  benumb  the  arm  of  a  person  touching  one  of 
them,  and  they  probably  resort  to  this  means  to  obtain  their 
prey.  Several  species  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  France. 

ORDER    OF    CYCLOSTOMT. 

19.  This  last  order  of  cartilaginous  fishes  is  characterised  by 
the  singular  conformation  of  the  mouth,  and  is  composed  of  the 
most  imperfectly  organised  of  all  the  vertebrate  animals. 

20.  Their  body,  elongated,  naked  and  viscid,   is   unprovided 
with  thoracic  and  abdominal  extremities ;  for  both  the   pectoral 

*  Explanation  of  Fig,  64. — The  Torpedo,  or  Electric  Ray: — a.  a  portion 
of  the  skin  detached  to  show  one  of  the  electric  organs,  (6.) 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  Rays  properly  so  called? 

18.  How  are  the  Torpedoes  characterised  ?     What  is  the  nature  of  theii 
Wectric  apparatus  ? 

19.  How  is  the  order  of  Cyclostomi  characterised  ? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  fishes  of  this  order?    What  are  thn  pecu 
liarities  of  their  respiratory  apparatus  ? 

10* 


126 


LAMPREYS. 


Fig.  65. 


and  ventral  fins  are  wanting.  Anteriorly,  they  terminate  in  a 
circular,  or  semi-circular,  fleshy  lip,  sustained  by  a  cartilaginous 
ring,  formed  by  the  solid  union  of  the  palatine  and  lower  jaw 
bones,  or  rather,  cartilages.  The  vertebrae  are  reduced  to  simple 
cartilaginous  rings,  scarcely  distinct  one  from  the  other,  traversed 
by  a  tendinous  cord,  and  surmounted  by  a  second  ring  which  is 
more  solid,  surrounding  the  spinal  marrow.  There  are  no  true 
ribs  nor  branchial  arches ;  the  branchiae,  instead  of  being  pecti- 
nate, present  the  appearance  of  sacks  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
face  of  one  branchia,  with  that  of  a  corresponding  branchia  on  the 
opposite  side.  Sometimes  this  imperfect*  skeleton  is  not  even 
cartilaginous,  but  always  remains  membranous.  The  organs  of 
the  senses  are  less  complicated  in  structure  than  they  are  in 
ordinary  fishes.  They  have  no  swimming-bladder. 

21.  The  LAMPREYS, —  Petromyzoa, — are  recognised  by  seven 
branchial  openings  which  are  seen  on  both  sides  of  the  neck,  by 

their  circular  labial  ring,  armed  with 
several  ranges  of  strong  teeth,  and  horny 
tubercles,  (Fig.  65.);  the  tongue  is  also 
furnished  with  teeth,  and  is  carried  for- 
ward and  backward  like  a  piston,  which 
enables  the  animal  to  exert  the  faculty  of 
suction  and  use  its  buccal  disk,  not  only 
to  suck  up  the  juices  upon  which  it  feeds, 
but  to  attach  itself  to  solid  bodies.  The 
skin  of  these  fishes  is  raised  up  above  and 
beneath  the  tail  in  a  longitudinal  crest  that  takes  the  place  of 
fins,  which  are  sustained  only  by  vestiges  of  fin-rays.  The  water 
necessary  for  respiration  passes  from  the  mouth  to  the  branchiae, 
by  a  canal  situate  under  the  oesophagus,  and  pierced  laterally  by 
holes. 

22.  The    Sea    Lamprey, —  Petromyzon  marinus,— (  Fig.  66.  ) 
which  is  two  or  three  feet 'long,  and  marbled  brown  on  a  yellowish 
ground,  inhabits  the  coasts  Fig.  66. 

of  France,  and  the  United 

States,  and   in   the   spring 

ascends  rivers  to  deposit  its 

eggs.     It  ordinarily  preys  on  marine  worms,  and  small  fishes,  or 

fragments  of  dead  bodies;  but  it  attaches  itself  to   large   fishes, 

and  succeeds  in  piercing  their   skin  and   devouring   them.     Its 


MOUTH  OF  A  LAMPREY. 


SEA  LAMPREY. 


.21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Lampreys  ?  What  is  the  structure  of 
their  mouth  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sea  Lampreys?  WThat  are  their 
habits  ?  What  are  the  characters  of  fresh  water  Lampreys  ?  Where  are 
Larnprcye  found  ? 


MYXINES. 


flesh  is  much  esteemed.  The  Fre*k  Water,  or  Riter  Lamprey, 
—  Petromifznn  fliiriatiiis, —  is  a  smaller  species,  seldom  exceeding 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  passes  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  in  fresh  water  lakes,  which  it  abandons  in  the  spring  to 
enter  rivers.  Its  colour  is  dark  olive  above,  and  yellowish  or 
silvery  beneath.  It  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  New  England. 
A  third  species  is  the  small  River  Lamprey,  eight  or  ten  inches  in 
length  ;  it  also  inhabits  fresh  waters,  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  its  dorsal  fins,  which  are  continuous  or  united, 
instead  of  being  distinct. 

23.  The  Hay-fakes, — Myxinc — have  the  maxillary  ring  entirely 
membranous,  and  armed  above  by  a  single  fang-like  tooth,  or  they 
are  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  while  the  tongue  is  armed  on  each 
side  with  two  horny  plates  deeply  serrated,  so  that,  at  first  sight, 
they  might  be  supposed  to  have  lateral  jaws,  like  articulated  ani- 
mals with  which  in  fact,  some  authors  have  placed  them  ;  in  other 
respects  their  organization  is  analogous  to  that  of  lampreys.  Their 
body  is  cylindrical,  and  furnished  posteriorly  with  a  fin  which  sur- 
rounds the  tail;  their  mouth  is  circular, surrounded  by  eight  cirri, 
and  its  upper  margin  is  pierced  by  a  spiracle  which  communicates 
with  its  interior.  They  have  no  vestiges  of  eyes,  and  their  body 
is  lubricated  by  a  great  quantity  of  mucus.  Thus  provided,  the 
Myxine,  when  it  attacks  its  prey,  uses  its  mouth  like  a  cupping- 
glass,  and  plunges  its  fang  into  its  flesh  ;  and,  thus  securing  a 
firm  hold,  the  lingual  saws  tear  their  way  into  its  very  vitals. 
Some,  called  Hrptalrennts,  have  seven  branchial  apertures  on 
each  side  of  the  neck;  others,  named  Gastrobranchus,  have  on 
each  side,  a  canal,  which  receives,  through  particular  holes,  the 
water  coming  from  the  branch!®,  and  empties  externally  by  a 
hole  situated  at  about  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  body ;  and 
in  others  again,  the  branchial  openings  are  arranged  as  in  the 
lamprey  and  heptatremus;  but  the  fleshy  lip,  which  is  unprovided 
with  teeth,  is  only  semi-circular,  and  covers  only  the  upper  part 
of  the  mouth  which  prevents  them  from  using  it  as  a  means  o' 
attaching  themselves.  These  last  myxines,  which  are  named 
Jlmmocetes,  have  an  entirely  soft  and  membranous  skeleton;  they 
keep  in  the  mud  of  small  streams,  and  have  many  of  the  hebits 
of  worms,  which  they  resemble  also  in  form. 

It  may  be  well  for  the  reader,  who  has  followed  us  through 
our  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  books,  to  remark  that  we 
began  our  account  of  the  animal  world,  with  a  general  description 
of  the  most  perfectly  organized  being,  and  we  found  man,  inde- 
pendently of  his  possessing  an  immortal  soul,  the  most  complete, 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Myxines? 
2R    ' 


123  CONCLUSION. 


and  most  wonderful  of  all  animal  structures.  Without  any  other 
reason,  he  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  great  class  of  mammals, 
ar  J  it  may  be  observed,  as  we  advanced  in  our  descriptions,  that 
t>.e  animals  "became  less  and  less  perfectly  organised  :  the  nervous 
'ystem,  the  respiratory  and  circulatory  systems  grow  less  and 
ess  perfect  as  we  proceed.  On  reaching  the  reptiles,  we  discover, 
for  example,  that  their  heart  has  lost  one  ventricle,  and  their 
blood  is  cold  ;  and  in  fishes,  we  find  it  has  also  lost  an  auricle, 
and  consists  only  of  a  single  auricle,  and  a  single  ventricle.  In 
the  tishes  too,  we  observe  striking  changes  in  the  composition  of 
bone;  and  the  skeleton  gradually  loses  its  hardness,  until  we 
come  to  the  Myxines,  where  it  is  soft  and  membranous ;  or,  it 
might  be  said,  the  internal  hard  frame  called  the  skeleton,  has 
disappeared,  and  we  are  brought  step  by  step,  to  the  considera- 
tion of  soft  animals  without  vertebrae ;  but,  nevertheless,  they 
are  provided  with  organs  suitable  for  maintaining  the  kind  of  life 
with  which  they  are  endowed  by  the  Omniscient  Creator  of  all 
things. 

This  concludes  our  account  of  the  vertebrate  animals,  which 
constitute  the  FIRST  BRANCH  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  We 
have  next  to  consider  the  SECOND  BRANCH,  composed  exclusively 
of  the  Molluscous  Animals,  the  study  of  which  embraces  Con- 
chology,  or  the  History  of  Shells. 


END    OP   THE   FOURTH    BOOK    OP   NATURAL    HISTORY 


BOOK  V. 


INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

SECOND  .BRANCH  :-^MOLlD8CA. 

OLASS  I.-CEPHALOPODA.    CLASS  II.-PTEROPODA.    CLASS  IH.-GA1. 
TEROPODA.    CLASS  IV.—  ACEPHALA.    CLASS  V.—  BRA- 
CHIOPODA.    CLASS  VI.-CIRRHOFODA. 


ELEMENTS  OF  CONCHOLOGY. 

SECOND    BRANCH   OF   THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


MOLLUSC  A: 

MOLLUSKS,  OR  SOFT  ANIMALS. 


LESSON  I. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. — Mollusca  in  general — Organiza- 
tion— Nervous  System — General  Form  —  Skin  —  Mantle — 
Shell — Formation  of  Shell — Digestive  Apparatus — Circula- 
tion of  the  Blood — Respiration — Senses — Eggs — Classifica- 
tion. 

The  long  series  of  vertebrate  animals,  the  history  of  which  we 
have  already  concluded,  forms  only  a  small  part  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  and  to  make  the  beings  we  are  now  about  to  study  as 
interesting  as  the  vertebrata,  we  should  be  obliged  to  very  far 
exceed  the  limits  of  these  lessons :  but  these  animals  are  less 
useful  to  us ;  they  attract  less  attention,  and  most  of  them  pass 
unnoticed,  except  by  those  who  are  at  the  pains  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  them ;  their  faculties  are  more  limited  and  their 
structure  is  less  complicated  and  less  perfect. 

1.  All  these  lower  animals  want  a  spinal  marrow  and  a  true 
internal  skeleton ;  this  last  character  has  obtained  for  them  the 
collective  name  of  invertebrate  animals  ;  but  in  a  natural  classi- 
fication, they  could  not  all  be  placed  in  the  same  group,  because 
they  are  evidently  formed  after  three  different  types,  and  there- 
fore should  be  divided  into  three  distinct  branches,  namely  :  the 
mollusca,  the  articulata,  the  radiata,  or  zoophytes. 

2.  The  branch  of  zoophytes  is  composed  essentially  of  the 
most  imperfect  animals  :  according  to  the  classification  of  Cuvier, 
which  we  follow,  this  branch  comprises  a  certain  number  of  beings 
which  seem,  in  a  manner,  to  present  the  first  sketch  of  the  mode 
of  organization  proper  to  mollusks  and  articulate  animals;  its 
place  is  therefore  among  the  lowest  grades  of  the  animal  series, 
and  passes,  by  gradual  shades,  from  the  type  of  the  radiate  ani- 
mal to  that  of  the  two  great  branches  which  spring  from  it.    These 
two  latter  branches,  one  equally  with  the  other,  present  a  con- 
stantly increasing  complication  of  organization,  and  form,  as  it 

1.  What  are  inver'tebrate  animals  ?     What  groups  or  divisions  include 
the  inver'tebrate  animals  ? 

2.  What  are  zo'ophytes  ?     Why  are  the  mollus'ca  placed  before  the  artlo 
alata  in  the  series  of  animals  ? 

2R*  9 


10  NERVES  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

were,  two  parallel  series.  The  series  of  articulate  animals  seems 
to  be  the  highest  in  the  scale;  but  the  mollusca,  though  less  per- 
rpft  in  structure,  seem  to  be  less  remote  in  their  mode  of  orga- 
nization from  the  vertebrata,  and  for  this  reason  we  have  deter- 
mined to  place  them  first. 

3.  We  give  the  name  of  Mollusca  (from  the  Latin,  mollis^ 
soft)  to  animals  which,  in  the  general  features  of  their  orga- 
nization,  resemble  snails,  oysters,  &c.     They  have  no  articu- 
lated skeleton  nor  vertebral  canal,  like  the  vertebrate  animals  ; 
their  body  is  soft,  and  their  skin,  which  is  often  covered  by  a 
shell,  is  never  hardened  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  external  skele- 
ton composed  of  a  series  of  rings,  as  is  the  case  in  insects  and 
the  Crustacea. 

4.  The  nervous  system,  an  apparatus  of  so  much  importance, 
the  action  of  which  regulates  all  the  phenomena  of  animal  life, 
and  the  functions  of  which  must  necessarily  be  in  harmony  with 
its  mode  of  conformation,  differs  altogether  in  the  mollusca  in 
its  general  disposition,  from  what  we  observe  in  the  vertebrata. 
There  exists  a  nervous  centre  which  to  a  certain  extent  may  be 
compared  to  the  brain  in  superior  animals;  but  this  ganglionic 
mass  is  not  continuous  with  an  organ  analogous  to  the  spinal 
marrow  ;  the  other  central  parts  of  the  nervous  system  are  found 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  digestive  tube,  and  hence  this  canal  is 
always  embraced  by  a  sort  of  medullary  collar,  from  which  the 
different  nerves  of  the  body  arise.     In  other  respects,  this  appa- 
ratus varies  more  in  its  arrangement  than  in  the  number  of  parts 
composing  it. 


a 

Fig.  1. NERVOUS  SYSTEM  OF  A  SOLEN. 

5.  In  a  great  many  of  the  least  perfect  mollusks,  such  as  the 
rfolen  and  many  other  acephala,  which  inhabit  bivalve  shells, 
the  nervous  system  is  generally  composed  of  but  two  pairs  of 
ganglia,  united  by  two  long  inter-ganglionic  cords,  giving  rise 
to  different  branches  (fg.  1);  the  ganglia  of  the  anterior  pair 

Explanation  of  Fig.  1.  —  Nervous  system  of  an  acephalous  mollusk 
(Soien) : — y,  the  pair  of  ganglia  which  is  situate  in  front  of  the  oesophagus 
representing  that  portion  of  the  nervous  system  of  these  animals,  which  is 

3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Mollus'ca  ? 

4.  Whatare  the  peculiarities  of  arrangement  of  the  nerves  of  the  Mollus'ca? 

5.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  nervous  system  in  acephalous 
mollusks '/    What  are  tnc  peculiarities  of  the  nervous  system  of  gasteropods? 


NERVES  OF  MOLLUSKS. 


11 


Fig. 

NERVES   OF   A 
JANTHINA. 


(a)  are  sometimes  considerably  separated  from 
each  other,  and  only  united  by  an  intermediate 
cord,  and  sometimes  glued  one  to  the  other,  or 
even  confounded  in  a  single  mass :  they  are 
situate  above  the  oesophagus,  and  far  from  the 
posterior  ganglia  (6),  which  are  placed  beneath 
the  intestine  towards  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body.  In  some  mollusks,  the  nervous  system 
is  still  more  simple  in  its  composition  ;  but,  in 
general,  the  ganglia  tend  to  approximate  the 
O3sophagus  more  and  more  (Jig'  2),  and  in 
most  of  these  animals  we  find  a  greater  num- 
ber of  small  medullary  masses,  some  of  which 
form  a  sort  of  nervous  centre,  and  the  others 

are    distributed    in     different    parts 

of  the    body.     Thus,    in  the  snails  \      \(l    \\\f   /     o 

and    most    mollusks   constructed  on 

the  same  plan,  and  named  gastero- 

pods     (from    the     Greek,  •  gaster, 

belly,  and  pous,  foot),   on   account 

of  their   mode   of  crawling  on  the 

ventral   surface  of  the   body,    there  g 

exists,   above   and   in    front   of    the  p  '"^ 

O3sophagus,  a  medullary  mass   (jig. 

3,  c.),  which    is   the   representative  d 

of    the    anterior    pair    of    gangWa 

above   mentioned,  and  which  is  re-  a'" 

garded    by    most   anatomists   as  the     Fig.  3.— NERVES  OF  A  SNAIL. 

generally  called  the  brain  ;  here,  these  two  ganglia  are  considerably  sepa- 
rated from  each  other,  and  are  united  by  a  transverse  band;  —  c.  nerves 
which  arise  anteriorly  to  be  distributed  to  the  tentacula,  to  the  mantle,  &c. ; 
— b.  ventral  pair  of  ganglia,  which  are  united  in  a  single  mass,  placed  be- 
neath the  intestine,  and  joined  to  the  anterior  ganglia  by  two  very  long 
nervous  cords ; — d.  nerves  which  arise  from  the  posterior  ganglia  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  mantle,  &c. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  2. — Nervous  system  of  a  Janthina ;  a  gasteropod 
mollusk,  in  which  the  posterior  ganglia  (fe)  as  well  as  the  anterior  ganglia 
(a)  are  separated  from  each  other ;  but  they  are  more  approximated  to  the 
latter,  so  that  the  inter-gangl ionic  cords  are  very  short,  and  form  a  sort  of 
closely  fitting  collar  around  the  oasophagus. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  3. — Central  portion  of  the  nervous  system  of  the 
snail: — c.  ganglia  situate  in  front  of  the  resophagus,  and  constituting,  by 
their  union,  the  mass  which  is  called  the  brain  in  mollusca ; — o.  nerves  of 
the  anterior  parts  of  the  body,  the  eyes,  &c. ; — g.  the  nervous  mass  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  ganglia  of  the  posterior  pair ;  the  esophagus  passes 
through  the  collar  or  ring  which  unites  it  to  the  brain ; — p.  the  nerves  of 
the  foot ; — n.  nerves  which  go  to  the  pulmonary  cavity,  &c. ; — a.  the  nerve 
which  accompanies  the  principal  artery ; — d.  the  nerve  which  goes  to  tue 
i,  &c. 


12 


NERVES  OF  THE  APLYSIA. 


brain  of  these  animals  :  it  furnishes  nerves  to  the  organs  of 
tnc  senses  as  well  as  to  the  neighbouring  parts  (o),  and  is 
continued  posteriorly  by  two  inter-ganglionic  cords,  which  em- 
brace the  oesophagus,  and  which,  at  a  short  distance,  unite 
with  a  second  nervous  mass  (g1),  situate  beneath  the  digest- 
>ve  tube,  and  comparable  to  the  posterior  pair  of  ganglia, 

which  we  remarked  when 
speaking  of  the  acephalous 
mollusks ;  and  two  small 
nerves,  which  arise  from  the 
brain,  unite  to  form  a  third 
ganglion  (Jig.  4,  tf),  below 
the  origin  of  the  oasophagus. 
In  other  gasteropods,  the 
o  aplysice  or  sea-hares,  for  ex- 
ample, to  these  ganglia  is 
g  joined  another  (jig.  4,  t)),  si- 
tuated among  the  viscera, 
and  united  by  two  commu- 
nicating threads  to  the  med- 
ullary collar  which  surrounds 
the  oesophagus,  and  giving 
rise  to  the  nerves  of  the  in-' 
testines,  liver,  branchiae, ova- 
ries, &c.  We  also  find  in 
these  mollusks  a  fifth  gan- 
glion, which  is  very  small, 
belonging  to  these  latter  or- 
gans. And,  in  the  poulpes 
and  the  cuttle-fish  (Jig.  5), 
A  I  jS^^T^\\ v  in  which  this  system  acquires 


Fig.   4. — NERVES   OF   THE   APLYSIA. 


its  highest  degree  of  de- 
velopment, the  ganglionic 
parts  grouped  around  the 
oesophagus,  are  larger  and 
more  complicated ;  for  the 
cephalic  and  post-oesopha- 
geal  ganglia,  united  in  a 
large  oesophageal  collar, 
present  laterally  a  third 


Explanation  of  Fig.  4. — Nervous  system  of  the  aplysia  (or  sea-hare,  as 
it  was  called  by  the  ancients),  another  gasteropod  mollusk  ; — c.  the  brain ; — 
p.  the  nervous  collar  which  surrounds  the  oesophagus ;— g.  the  thoracic  or 
post-oesophageal  ganglia  ; — v.  the  visceral  ganglion ; — t.  the  buccal  ganglion. 


NERVES  OF  MOLLUSKS. 


pair  of  ganglionic 
swellings,  which 
are  lodged  in  a 
cartilaginous,  cra- 
nial cravity  ;  from 
them  arise  the 
nerves  of  the  feet  * 
(Fig.  5). 

To  recapitulate, 
we  see  that,  in  this  rt 
class  of  animals, 
the  nervous  sys- 
tem is  essentially 
composed  of  a  * 
medullary  collar, 
embracing  the  ali- 
mentary tube,  and 
formed  by  the 
communicating  € 
cords  of  the  two 
pairs  of  ganglia, 
which  are  widely  v 
separated  in  the 
acephalous  mol- 
lusks,  but  approx- 
imate more  and 
more  as  we  ascend 
in  the  series,  form- 
ed by  the  gaster- 
opods  and  cepha- 
iopods ;  and  the 


Explanation  of  Fig.  5. — Nervous  system  of  the  cuttle-fish  ; — a,  the  ner- 
vous collar  which  embraces  the  oesophagus,  the  course  of  which  is  indi- 
cated by  a  bristle  (s): — c.  the  nervous  mass,  situate  in  front  of  the  oesophagus, 
and  commonly  called  the  brain  :  the  upper  surface  is  surmounted  by  a  very 
large  cordiform  tubercle,  and  from  its  anterior  part  arise  two  nerves  that 
soon  terminate  in  a  circuit  ganglion,  which,  in  its  turn,  gives  rise  to 
another  pair  of  nerves,  which  descend  beneath  the  mouth  so  as  to  embrace 
the  oesophagus  again,  and  then  form  a  small  anterior  ganglion  from  which 
arise  the  labial  nerves ; — b.  the  tentacular  ganglia,  from  which  arise  the 
nerves  of  the  arm  ; — o.  the  optic  nerves  which  arise  from  the  lateral  parts 
of  the  brain,  and  soon  swell  into  a  large  ganglion  ; — t.  small  nervous  tuber- 
cles, situate  on  the  origin  of  the  optic  nerves ; — g.  the  sub-cesophageal  or 
ventral  ganglion  ; — r.  the  great  nerve  of  the  viscera,  one  branch  of  which 
presents  an  elongated  ganglion  (r),  and  penetrates  into  the  branchiae , — m 
nerve*  which  also  arise  from  the  post-cesophcgeal  ganglia,  and  which,  in 
their  course,  present  a  large  star-like  ganglion  (e),  the  branches  of  whirl* 
%re  distributed  to  the  mantle. 
2 


14  FORM.— SKIN.— SHELL 

nerves  which  arise  from  each  of  these  ganglia,  to  be  distributed 
to  the  different  organs,  are  at  first  simple,  but  very  soon  pre- 
sent in  different  parts  of  the  body  ganglionic  swellings ;  but 
these  ganglia,  however  numerous  they  may  be,  never  form  a  reg- 
ular longitudinal  chain,  extending  along  the  middle  line  of  the 
abdominal  face  of  the  body,  as  is  the  case  in  the  articulated  ani- 
mals. 

6.  As  we  have  already  said,  in  this  great  branch  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  there  is  neither  an  internal  skeleton,  analogous  to  the 
solid  frame  of  vertebrate  animals,  nor  an  external  skeleton,  sim- 
ilar to  the  tegumentary  sheath,  which  envelopes  the  whole  body 
of  articulate  animals  in  a  series  of  rings,  and  serves  the  same 
purposes  as  the  skeleton,  properly  so  called,  of  the  superior  ani- 
mals.     The  general   form  of  mollusks  is  extremely  variable. 
Their  body  is  always  soft,  and  in  a  very  small  number  of  them 
only,  there  exists  internally  some  solid  pieces  which  are  unarticu- 
lated,  and  serve  rather  to  protect  the  viscera  than   to  furnish 
levers  and  points  of  support  to  the  apparatus  of  locomotion.    The 
muscles   are  attached  directly  to  the  integuments  and  act  but 
very  little  beyond  their  point  of  insertion  ;  their  motions  are  slow, 
and  in  general  ill  directed.     In  a  small  number  of  these  beings, 
there  are  elongated  and  flexible  appendages,  designed  for  locomo- 
tion (jig.  7,  page  23) ;  but  in  most  instances  the  animal  can 
change  its  place,  only  by  successively  contracting  different  pointa 
of  the  inferior  surface  of  its  body,  and,  even  when  it  possesses 
extremities,  they  are  united  in  a  group  at  one  end  of  the  body, 
and  never  arranged  in  a  symmetrical  series,  as  they  are  in  verte- 
brate and  in  articulate  animals. 

7.  The  skin  of  mollusks,  always  soft  and  viscid,  often  forms 
folds  that  more  or  less  completely  envelope  the  body,  and  this 
disposition  has  caused  the  name  of  mantle  to  be  given  to  thai 
portion  of  integument  which  ordinarily  furnishes  these  expansions. 
Frequently  this  mantle  or  pallium  is  almost  entirely  free,  and 
constitutes  two  large  veils  which  conceal  all  the  rest  of  the  ani- 
mal, or  rather,  these  two  laminae  or  membranes  unite  together  so 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  tube;  but  at  other  times,  it  consists  only  of 
a  sort  of  dorsal  disk,  the  edges  of  whicft  alone  are  free,  or  sur- 
round the  body  more  exactly  under  the  form  of  a  sack. 

8.  In  general  this  soft  skin  is  protected  by  a  sort  of  stony 
cuirass  named  shell.     It  is  a  secretion  having  some  analogy  to 

6.  What  kind  of  a  skeleton  have  mollusks  ?     What  are  the  general  cha- 
racters of  their  body  ?     How  is  locomotion  effected  in  mollusks  ? 

7.  What  is  the  mantle  or  pallium? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  shell  ?     What  is  meant  by  naked  mollusks  ?    What 
are  testacea  ? 


GROWTH  OF  SHELLS.  15 

that  of  the  epidermis  which  produces  this  envelope.  The  follicles, 
ordinarily  lodged  in  the  edges  of  the  mantle,  deposit  upon  its 
surface  a  semi-corneous  matter,  mixed  with  a  greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  moulds  itself  upon  the  sub- 
jacent parts  and  solidifies.  The  lamina  or  layer,  thus  formed, 
thickens  and  grows  by  successive  deposits  of  new  matter.  Its 
superficies  is  not  stony,  but  in  form  of  a  kind  of  epidermis. 
Sometimes  it  preserves  a  horny  consistence  throughout  its  whole 
thickness.  In  general,  however,  the  proportion  of  carbonate  of 
lime  that  it  contains  rapidly  increases  and  imparts  to  it  a  stony 
hardness.  The  internal  surface  is  often  harder  than  ihe  rest, 
and  possesses  a  particular  structure  which  renders  it  vitreous  or 
shining  and  nacreous.  Sometimes  the  shell  always  remains  en- 
closed in  the  thickness  of  the  skin  ;  but,  in  general,  it  is  external, 
and  extends  beyond  the  mantle,  so  as  to  afford  the  animal  perfect 
protection.  Those  which  are  unprovided  with  shells,  or  only 
have  an  internal  shell,  are  called  naked  mollusks,  and  those  in 
which  the  shell  is  visible  are  included  under  the  name  of  con- 
chifera,  or  sometimes  testa'cea. 

9.  The  manner  in  which  the  shell  grows  is  easy  to  under- 
stand.    If  we  examine  the  shell  of  an  oyster,  for  example,  we 
observe  that  it  consists  of  a  multitude  of  superposed  lamina?,  the 
separation  of  which  may  be  effected  by  the  assistance  of  heat. 
These  laminre  are  formed  successively  by  the  mantle  of  the  ani- 
mal which  they  cover,  and,  consequently,  the  most  external  one 
must  be  the  oldest;  and  it  is  also  the  smallest,  and  each  new 
lamina  that  is  added,  exceeds  the  lamina  situate  above,  so  that 
while  the  shell  is  augmenting  in  thickness,  it  is  also  increasing  in 
size.     In  general,  the  distinctness  of  the  lamina  is  less  marked, 
and  often  the  new  matter  is  deposited  in  such  a  manner,  that  its 
molecules   exactly  correspond  to  the    molecules  of  the  matter 
already  consolidated,  and  thus  gives   to   the   whole  a   fibrous 
structure. 

10.  Shells  are  adorned  with  most  diversified  and  most  agree- 
ably arranged  colours,  which  often  vary  with  their  age.     They 
are  almost  always  entirely  superficial,  and  seem  to  depend  on  a 
sort  of  a  dyeing  process  performed  by  the  skin  of  the  animal, 
which  is  coloured  in  a  manner  corresponding  with  that  of  its  en- 
velope.    The  colouring  matter  seems  to  be  deposited  upon  the 
shell  at  the  time  of  its  formation  :  and  its  brightness  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  newness  of  the  latter.     It  is  produced  by  the  edgo 
of  the  mantle.     When  a  shell  happens  to  be  broken  and  the  ani- 

9.  How  does  the  shell  grow? 
10.  IIoW  are  the  colours  of  shells  produced? 


16  COLOURS  OF  SHELLS. 


ma!  succeeds  in  repairing  the  accident,  the  part  newly  formed  IP 
always  white,  if  it  has  not  been  in  contact  with  the  edge  of  the 
mantle ;  but  if  it  correspond  to  this  edge,  it  then  assumes  the 
colour  that  the  latter  presents  at  the  point  touched.  For  exam- 
ple, when  this  edge  is  spotted,  we  find  corresponding  spots  on 
the  margin  of  the  shell,  and,  in  proportion  as  the  latter  is  elon- 
gated, these  spots  become  confounded  with  those  previously 
formed,  and  produce  lines  perpendicular  to  crossing  striae,  or 
they  do  not  join  the  latter,  but  remain  isolated,  according  as  the 
mantle  remains  unmoved,  and  preserves  the  same  relation  to  the 
margins  of  the  shell,  or  frequently  changes  its  position  according 
to  the  movements  of  the  animal.  Sometimes  the  secretion  of 
the  colouring  matter  varies  with  age;  and  accidental  circum- 
stances may  also  modify  it.  Light,  for  example,  exerts  a  very 
remarkable  influence  on  this  phenomenon,  for  not  only  are  shells 
that  are  most  exposed  to  the  action  of  this  physical  agent,  ordi- 
narily most  brightly  coloured,  but,  when  a  mollusk  lives  fixed  to 
a  rock,  or  in  some  spot  hidden  beneath  a  sponge,  or  other  opaque 
body,  the  part  of  the  shell  thus  placed  in  darkness  is  always 
dull,  and  paler  than  that  which  is  exposed  to  the  contact  of  the 
solar  rays. 

The  duration  of  shells,  and  the  length  of  time  the  animals  live 
which  inhabit  them,  are  circumstances  not  yet  determined.  When 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  the  vicissitudes  of  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  for  some  time,  shells  usually  change  their 
colours  and  gradually  become  white.  The  animal  matter  which 
enters  into  its  composition  is  destroyed,  and  disappears  little  by 
little ;  the  laminae  separate  from  each  other,  particularly  under 
the  alternate  influence  of  heat  and  cold,  and  become  finally  re- 
duced to  a  calcareous  powder,  which  is  washed  away  by  currents 
of  water. 

11.  All  mollusks  are  provided  with  an  alimentary  canal,  which 
is  more  or  less  folded  on  itself  and  open  at  its  two  ends,  either  at 
the  extreme  points  of  the  body,  or  at  points  more  or  less  near  to 
each  other.     There  is  always  a  voluminous  liver,  and  we  often 
find  them  furnished  also  with  salivary  glands  and  organs  of  mas- 
tication ;  but  the  intestines  are  never  held  in  their  place  by  the 
assistance  of  a  mesentery. 

12.  The  blood  of  these  animals  is  cold  and  colourless  or  slightly 
bluish,  and  circulates  in  a  very  complicated  vascular  apparatus, 
composed  of  arteries  and  veins.  A  heart,  formed  of  a  ventricle  (t?) 

11.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  mol- 
lusks  < 

12.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  blood  of  mollusks  ?     How  is  it  circulated  ? 


CIRCULATION— SENSES. 


17 


and  one  or  two  auricles  (o) 
is  found  in  the  track  of  the 
arterial  blood,  and  sends 
this  liquid  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  from  which  it  re- 
turns to  the  organs  of  respi- 
ration. Sometimes  we  also  r 
find,  at  the  base  of  the  ves- 
sels which  enter  this  latter 
apparatus,  venous  reser- 
voirs, erroneously  called  pul- 
monary hearts  ;  for,  having 
nothing  in  their  structure  re- 
sembling muscle,  they  can- 
not set  the  blood  in  motion, 
and  consequently  do  not  me- 
rit this  name.  (See  Jig.  9, 
Page  21.) 

13.  The  organs  of  respira- 
tion vary  so  much  that  they 
cannot   be  well  described  at 
this    place :  we   will    merely 
mention  that  they  are  some- 
times in  the    form  of  lungs, 
and    at    others,    in  that    of 
branchire  or  gills. 

14.  Nor  can  we  say  any  thing  generally  of  the  structure  of 
the  organs  of  the  senses,  which  are,  however,  always  less  com- 
plete than  in  the  vertebrate  animals.     Certain  mollusks  appear  to 
be  endowed  only  with  the  sense  of  touch  and  with  the  sense  of  taste, 
but  in  a  great  many  we  find  eyes  which  vary  in  structure,  and 
in  some  of  these  animals  there  even  exists  an  apparatus  of  hear- 
ing :  but  none  is  known  to  possess  a  particular  organ  of  smell. 

15.  Mollusks  are  re-produced  from  eggs;  but  are  sometimes 
hatched  without,  and  sometimes  within  the  body  of  the  mother, 

Explanation  of  Fig.  6. — Heart  of  an  acephalous  mollusk  :— 0.  the  ventri- 
cle, which  in  these  animals  has  the  rectum  (r)  passing  through  it,  and 
gives  rise  to  two  arteries  (o) ; — c.  one  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  openings ; 
— o.  the  two  auricles  receiving  the  blood  from  the  branchial  veins  (6). 

In  the  above  diagram,  the  ventricle  (c)  is  open,  and  the  rectum,  (r,  r) 
has  been  divided,  and  the  lower  part  turned  downwards  : — a  (at  the  lower 
part  of  the  figure)  represents  the  origin  of  one  artery,  the  other  artery 
having  a  similar  origin  above. 

13.  What  is  the  character  of  the  organs  of  respiration  in  mollusks  1 

14.  What  senses  are  possessed  by  mollusks  ? 

15.  How  are  mollusks  re-produced  ? 

2*  2S 


Fig.  6. HEART   OF    AN  ACEPHALOUS 

MOLLUSK. 


CLASSIFICATION. 


and  then  the  young  are  born  alive.  In  all  cases  they  possess  at 
birth  nearly  the  form  they  preserve  through  life,  and  do  not  un- 
dergo metamorphosis. 

We  have  already  stated  that  mollusks  differ  very  much  in  the 
general  form  of  their  body,  and  as  these  external  modifications 
are  accompanied  by  corresponding  differences  in  the  degree  of 
complication  of  their  internal  organization,  they  enable  us  to  di- 
vide these  animals  into  six  natural  groups.  The  following  table 
will  give  an  idea  of  this  classification : 

(CLASSES.) 

in  the  form  of  an  open  sack  in  front,  from  i 
which  the    head    appears,  surrounded  by  >  CEPHALOPODA. 
tentacula  (Fig.  7,  Page  19).  } 


• 

"having  a 

<J 

distinct 

not  in  the  form  of  an  ("membranous  fins  hO 

0 

g 

head,  and' 
the  body 

open  sack  in  front, 
and  the  head  is  not 

the  form   of  wing-s  I  n 
onthesidesofthefPTEROPOI)A- 

g 

surrounded  with  ten- 

neck.                          J 

a 

tacula. 

0 

• 

a  fleshy  foot   occu-'j 

i 

the  principal  organs 

pying    the     ventral 

.of  motion  being 

face    of   the    body,  J  GASTEROPODjt 

° 

disk,  or   sometimes 

of  fins. 

"having   four   branchiae    distinct   from  the  )  . 
mantle,  and  almost  always  a  fleshy  foot.     \  A> 

^j 

having  no 

8 

apparent  « 
head 

having  no  fleshy  foot  C  provided    with   two^j 
and  seldom  branchiae  1  ciliated  arms  which  1  p 
distinct    from     the    |  they  have  in   place  f* 

.mantle.                         !  of  them.                    J 

unprovided      with   ) 

arms   and   special    >  TUNICATA. 

organs  of  motion. "  j 

Cuvier,  and  many  other  zoologists,  arrange  the  cirrhopoda  also 
in  the  branch  of  mollusca ;  but  it  is  now  ascertained  that  these 
animals  belong  to  the  branch  of  articulata,  the  third  great  divi 
sion  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

16    Into  how  many  classes  is  the  branch  of  mollus'ca  divided  ? 


CLASS  OF  CEPHALOPODS 


LESSON  II. 

CLASS  or  CEPHALOPODA. — General  Form — Respiration — Cir- 
culation—  Organs  of  Digestion  —  Cephalic  Cartilage  — 
Organs  of  Locomotion — Organs  of  the  Senses  —  Nervous 
System — Habits — Division  into  two  Families. 

FAMILY  OF  CEPHALOPODA  DIBRANCHIATA. —  Octopus  vulgaris, 
or  Poulpe — Argonaut — Calmaries — Cutlle-jishes. 

FAMILY  OF  CEPHALOPODA  TETRABRANCHIATA.  —  Nautilus  — 
Ammonites — Belcmnites — Foraminafera. 

CLASS   OF   CEPHALOFODS. 

1.  This  class  is  composed  of  mollusks  which  are  of  fantastical 
shape,  for  their  head  is  placed  between  the  trunk  and  feet,  or 
tentacula,  which  serve  them  for  locomotion,  and  when  they  walk, 
the  body  is  uppermost,  and  the  head  down,  dragging  on  the 
ground.  Their  feet  are  attached,  around  the  mouth,  to  the  head, 
which  circumstance  has  obtained  for  them  the  name  of  Cephalo- 
pods*  (from  the  Greek,  kephale,  head,  and  pousy  foot  —  pro- 
nounced kef-a-lo-pod). 


Fig.  7. OCTOPUS*    VULGARIS, OR    COMMON    POULPE. 

2.  The  trunk  of  these  animals  is  covered  by  the  mantle, 
which  is  in  the  form  of  a  sack,  sometimes  almost  spherical, 
and  sometimes  more  or  less  elongated ;  it  encloses  all  the 

*  From  the  Greek,  okto,  eight,  and  pous,  foot, — eight  feet. 


1.  What  kind  of  animals  compose  the  class  of  Cephalopoda  ?     Why  ar» 
ther  called  Cephalopods  ? 

2    What  are  the  general  form  and  characters  of  the  Cephalopods  ? 


20 


STRUCTURE  OF  CEPHALOPODS. 


viscera  and  is  open  only  in  front,  (fig.  8,  o).  The  -head  issues 
from  this  opening :  it  is  round  and  generally  provided  with  two 
round  eyes,  very  analogous  in  their  structure  to  those  of  verte- 
brate animals.  The  mouth  occupies  the  centre  •  it  is  aimed 
with  two  jaws ;  and  around  this  opening  is  found  a  crown  of 
flexible  and  fleshy  appendages,  which  are  termed,  indifferently, 
legs  or  arms,  because  they  seem  to  be  entitled  to  either  appella- 
tion ;  for  they  serve  both  as  organs  of  prehension  and  lororm? 
lion  (fig.  7). 

3.  The  cephalopods  are  essentially  aquatic  animals,  and 
consequently  they  breathe  by  means  of  branchiae.  These 
organs  are  always  perfectly  symmetrical,  and  are  found  con- 
cealed beneath  the 
mantle,  in  a  particu- 
lar cavity  (fig.  8),  the 
parietes  of  which  alter- 
nately contract  and  di- 
late, and  the  interior 
communicates  exter- 
nally by  two  openings^ 
one  (o)  in  form  of  a 
slit,  serving  for  the 
entrance  of  the  water, 
and  the  other  pro- 
longed in  the  shape  of 
a  tub*  or  funnel  (/), 
serving  for  the  escape 
of  water  and  excre- 
ment. Each  branchia 
(6),  which  is  in  form 
of  an  elongated  pyra- 
mid, the  summit  of 
which  is  directed  forward,  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of 
membranous  lamellse  or  leaves,  placed  transversely  and  fixed 
on  each  side  of  a  middle  stalk.  Each  one  of  these  leaves  is 
divided  into  lamella,  which  are  in  turn  again  subdivided,  and 
it  is,  in  their  substance  that  we  find  the  capillary  vessels  where 


>•.  8. BODY   OF   A    POULPE. 


Ex 
man 


xplanalion  of  Fig.  8.— The  body  of  a  poulpe  seen  from  beneath  (the 
tie  is  slit  up  on  the  middle  line,  and,  on  one  side,  raised  up  to  show  the 
interior  of  the  respiratory  cavity) : — a.  the  base  of  the  head ; — t.  the  tube 
by  which  the  water  escapes  from  the  respiratory  cavity ; — o.  one  of  the  two 
lateral  openings  through  which  the  water  enters  this  cavity  ; — ft.  one  of  the 
branchiae  or  gills. 


3.  How  do  cephalopods  breathe  ?  How  many  branchiae  have  cephalopods  ? 


CIRCULATION  IN  CEPHALOPOUS. 


21 


the  venous  is  changed  into  arterial  blood.  The  number  of 
branchiae  varies,  and  this  difference  is  characteristic  of  the  two 
great  natural  divisions,  of  which  this  class  is  composed.  In 
some  there  is  but  a  single  pair,  while  in  others  two  pairs  of 
branchiae  are  focmd.  For  this  reason  the  first  have  been  called 
cephalapoda  dibranchiata  (from  the  Greek  dis,  two,  and 
bragchos,  branchia  or  gills, — two-gilled),  and  the  last,  cephalo- 
poda tetrabranchiata  (from  the  Greek,  tetras,  four,  and  bragchos, 
branchia, — -four-gilled). 

4.  The  heart  is  situated  between  the  branchise  on  the  middle 
line  of  the  body,  and  consists  only  of  a  single  ventricle 
(Jig.  9,  c)  :  the  blood  reaches  it  from  the  branchia?  by  the 


vv      av      a     cs       rv 

Fig.  9. ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  AND  RESPIRATION  IN  THE  CUTTLE-FISH. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  9. — The  organs  of  circulation  and  respiration  of  the 
cuttle-fish  ; — c.  the  aortic  heart,  the  upper  extremity  of  which  is  continuous 
with  the  superior  aorta,  which  distributes  the  blood  to  the  head,  &c. ; — b. 
branches  of  this  vessel ; — a.  the  inferior  aorta,  which  has  a  bulb  at  its  origin, 
and  soon  divides  into  two  branches  (u,  e) ; — vc.  the  vena  cava,  the  parietes 
of  which  are  covered  by  the  spongy  bodies  (cs) ; — av.  veins  of  the  viscera, 
going  to  empty  into  the  two  branches  of  the  vena  cava ; — eft.  venous  sinus 
>r  branchial  heart ; — s.  swelling  at  the  base  of  the  branchial  arteries  ; — br. 
oranchia?  ; — oft.  branchial  artery  ; — vb.  branchial  vein  ; — bu.  bulb  of  the 
branchial  veins,  situate  near  the  termination  of  these  vessels  in  the  heart. 


4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  heart  in  cephalopods  ?     What  are  the 
peculiarities  of  the  circulation  ? 

2S* 


22  CIRCULATION  IN   CEPHALOPODS. 

branchial  veins  (vb),  the  openings  of  which  are  furnished  with 
valves,  and  then  penetrates  the  arteries  which  arise  from  this 
organ.  The  latter  vessels  are  two  or  three  in  number;  but  one 
of  them  is  always  much  larger  than  the  rest,  arid  one  of  them 
also  has  at  its  base  a  swelling  or  bulb,  which  is  more  or  less 
muscular,  and  analogous  to  that  found  at  the  origin  of  the  aorta 
in  batrachians.  The  great  artery  to  which  we  generally  give  the 
name  of  aorta,  is  carried  forward  and  distributes  its  branches  to 
a  part  of  the  viscera,  the  head  and  legs.  The  other  arteries  go 
to  the  viscera  ;  and  the  blood,  after  having  in  this  way  passed 
through  all  the  organs,  returns  by  the  veins,  and  is  emptied  by 
them  into  a  great  vena  cava,  situate  near  the  heart.  The  bran- 
chial arteries  arise  from  the  inferior  extremity  of  this  last  vessel, 
and,  in  the  dibranchial  cephalopods,  present  a  very  remarkable 
arrangement ;  for,  before  penetrating  the  branchiae,  each  one  of 
them  dilates  so  as  to  form  a  great  venous  sinus  (fig.  9,  cb), 
which  most  authors  regard  as  a  branchial  heart,  but  its  parietes 
do  not  appear  to  be  really  muscular. 

5.  We  see,  therefore,  that  the  circulation  is  here  carried  on  in 
a  manner  opposite  to  that  of  fishes  ;  for  the  heart  is  found  in  the 
track  followed  by  the  arterial  blood,  while  in  fishes  the  venous 
blood  passes  through  this  organ  ;  but  in  other  respects,  there  is 
a  great  resemblance  in  the  general  disposition  of  the  circulatory 
apparatus  of  these  two   classes  of  animals  ;  for,  in   both,  the 
blood   passes   but  once  through  the  heart,  and  the  whole  of  it 
traverses  the  respiratory  apparatus  before  returning  to  the  differ- 
ent organs. 

6.  On  the  vena  cava  and  its  principal  branches,  we  remark  a 
multitude  of  very  singular  spongy  bodies  (fig>  9,  cs),  which, 
when  squeezed,  yield  a  mucosity,  and  which  are  attached  to  the 
parietes  of  these  vessels ;  these  appendages  are  enclosed  in  two 
membranous  pouches,  which  perform  the  functions  of  a  pericar- 
dium, and,  at  the  same  time,  communicate  by  particular  openings 
with  the  branchial  cavity.     In  this  way  the  water  from  without 
laves  them,  and  their  interior,  which  is  hollow,  communicates  by 
other  holes  with  the  interior  of  the  veins,  so  that  the  blood  must 
enter  them.     We  know  nothing  certain  in  regard  to  their  uses, 
but  it  is  probable  they  are  the  seat  of  some  secretion,  and  that 
»hey  serve  as  a  reservoir  to  contain  the  superabundant  blood  of 
the  veins,  when  the  circulation  is  interrupted  in  the  vessels,  much 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  spleen  seems  to  do  in  the  superior 
animals. 


n.  How  does  the  circulation  in  cephalopods  differ  from  that  of  fishes  ? 
6.  What  is  remarkable  about  the  vena  cava  ? 


DIGESTION  IN  CEPHALOPQDS. 


7.  The  apparatus  of  digestion  is  very  complicated.  The 
mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  circular  lip,  and  armed  with  two  ver- 
tical mandibles,  which  closely  resemble  the  beak  of  a  parrot ; 
they  are  set  in  motion  by  powerful  muscles.  A  fleshy  tongue, 
furnished  with  papillae  and  many  horny  pieces,  occupies  the  in- 
terior of  this  cavity,  and  is  attached  to  a  particular  cartilage. 
Salivary  glands,  the  number  and  arrangement  of  which  vary  a 
little,  surround  the  pharynx  and  oesophagus,  and  pour  into  the 
alimentary  canal  the  product  of  their  secretion.  The  oesopha- 
gus contracts  in  general,  and  before  terminating  in  the  stomach, 
presents  a  large  dilatation  or  crop  (fg.  10,  j)\  but  some- 
times, this  first  g  gs  j  gs 
digestive  pouch  is 
wanting.  Com- 
monly the  stom- 
ach is  in  the  form  - 
of  an  elongated  /' 
sack  ;  its  parietes 
are  muscular, and  , 
its  structure  re-  ' 
minds  us  of  the  m 
gizzard  of  birds. 
A  third  cavity  (s)  * 
succeeds  this  or-  as 
gan,  which,  in  di- 
branchial  cepha- 
lopods,  is  in  the  l 
form  of  a  coecum 
spirally  folded, 
while  in  the  tetra- 
branchial,  it  as- 
sumes that  of  a 
spherical  sack  in- 
ternally lamella- 


cb 


Fig.  10. — ^VISCERA    OF   A    POULPE. 


of  Fig.  10. — Viscera  of  a  poulpe  : — j.  the  crop  situated  be. 
neath  the  cephalic  cartilage; — gs.  inferior  salivary  glands  ; — f.  mass  formed 
by  the  liver  and  ink-bag  ; — e.  excretory  duct  of  the  ink-bag  going  to  empty 
in  the  funnel ; — t.  this  funnel  or  tube  ; — m.  the  open  mantle  ; — s.  the  caecum 
spirally  folded  ; — i.  a  part  of  the  intestine,  the  rest  being  removed  to  show 
the  organs  situate  beneath  ; — o.  the  oviducts  ; — c.  the  heart; — a.  the  inferior 
aorta  ; — as.  the  superior  aorta  ; — vb.  the  branchial  veins  ; — br.  the  branchiae: 
— cl.  the  partition  by  which  these  organs  adhere  to  the  parietes  of  the  re- 
spiratory cavity  ; — ab.  the  branchial  arteries  ; — cb.  venous  sinus  or  branchial 
hearts  ; — v.  venae  cavse  ;—fm.  muscular  fasciculi. 

7.  What  organs  constitute  the  apparatus  of  digestion  in  cephalopoda  ? 
What  is  remarkable  about  the  mouth  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the 
stomach  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  the  liver  ? 


24  ORGANS  OF  LOCOMOTION. 

ted  :  the  bile  is  poured  into  this  cavity  by  two  canals.  The 
liver  is  very  voluminous,  sometimes  simple,  and  sometimes  di- 
vided into  two  or  more  lobes :  its  colour  is  reddish  yellow,  and 
its  texture  very  soft.  The  intestine,  which  arises  very  near  the 
cardiac  orifice,  is  simple,  and  communicates,  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  pylorus,  with  a  glandular  pouch  which  seems  to  be  ana- 
logous to  the  pancreas ;  and,  after  making  several  curves,  this 
tube  empties  into  the  branchial  cavity,  at  tbte  base  of  the  funnel 
through  which  the  water  escapes  that  has  served  the  purposes  of 
respiration. 

8.  In  dibranchial  cephalopods,  there  exists  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  liver  another  very  remarkable  secretory  organ,  which 
produces  in  abundance  a  blackish  liquid,  called  ink;  the  excre- 
tory duct  of  this  gland  (fig.  10,  e)  empties  into  the  intestine  near 
its  extremity,  and,  when   the  animal*is  in  danger,  pours  out, 
through  the  funnel  or  tube,  enough  of  this  liquid  to  darken  the 
water  around,  and  thus  conceal  itself  from  the  sight  of  its  ene- 
mies.    The  ink  of  one  of  these  cephalopods — the  cuttle-fish — is 
employed  in  painting,  under  the  name  of  sepia ;  and  many  au- 
thors suppose  that  the  Indian  ink  of  the  Chinese  is  an  analogous 
substance,  though  it  appears  the  material  commonly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  Indian  ink  is  nothing  but  very  finely  powdered 
charcoal.     The  tetrabranchial  cephalopods  do  not  possess  any- 
thing similar. 

9.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  mollusks  have  no  solid,  ar- 
ticulated frame  within  their  body,  similar  to  the  skeleton  of  ver- 
tebrate animals.     In  the  cephalopods,  however,  we  find  traces  of 
something  analogous ;    for  there  exists  in  the  head  a  cartilage 
which  not  only  protects  the  brain,  but  enlarges  the  head  in  differ- 
ent directions,  to  furnish  points  of  insertion  to  the  principal  mus- 
cles of  the  animal. 

10.  The  disposition  of  the  organs  of  locomotion  and  prehen- 
sion, which  are  fixed  around  the  mouth,  varies  in  these  animals. 
In  the  dibranchial  cephalopods,  there  is  a  crown  of  eight  or  ten 
large  fleshy  tentacula,  the  inferior  surface  of  which  is  furnished 
with  suckers,  like  cupping-glasses,  by  aid  of  which  they  fix  them 
selves  very  strongly  to  bodies  that  they  embrace  (see  fig.  7,  page 
10).     In  the  tetrabranchial  cephalopods,  on  the  contrary,  these 
appendages,  though  very  numerous,  are  slender  and  unprovided 
•with  suckers. 

11.  The  organs  of  the  senses  are  most  perfect  in  the  dibran- 


8.  What  is  sepia  ?     How  is  it  formed  ?     What  is  Indian  ink  ? 

9.  Ha,ve  cephalopods  anything  resembling  an  internal  skeleton  ? 
10.  What  is  the  disposition  of  the  organs  of  locomotion?* 


SENSES  OF  CEPHALOPODS.  25 

chial  cephalopods.  In  these  mollusks  there  are  two  very  large 
eyes  of  spheroidal  form,  lodged  in  the  lateral  parts  of  the  head. 
These,  organs  are  composed  of  a  transparent  cornea,  let  into  the 
skin,  and  sometimes  protected  by  a  fold,  like  an  eyelid,  a  crystal- 
.ine  lens,  a  vitreous  body,  a  retina,  a  choroid  coat,  a  sclerotica, 
&c.,  nearly  the  same  as  in  vertebrate  animals.  In  the  tetrabran- 
chial  cephalopods  the  eyes  are  borne  on  projecting  peduncles,  and 
consist  of  a  cavity  only,  the  black  interior  of  which  contains  a 
retina,  and  receives  the  luminous  rays  through  a  circular  open- 
ing. No  auditory  apparatus  has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  first 
of  these  two  families.  We  find  in  the  cephalic  cartilage  of  the 
latter,  two  small  cavities,  closed  on  all  sides,  except  at  the  point 
through  which  the  nerve  penetrates ;  they  lodge  a  membranous 
vesicle,  and  are  filled  wjjh  a  peculiar  fluid,  containing  a  small 
stone.  This,  as  we  see,  is  a  still  more  simple  arrangement  than 
that  of  fishes ;  for  the  whole  apparatus  is  reduced  to  a  vestibule 
and  a  nerve  only. 

12.  The  nervous  system  of  the  cephalopods  is  more  compli- 
cated than  that  of  the  other  moliusks,  and  the  different  ganglia, 
grouped  around  the  oesophagus,  have  a  greater  tendency  to  be- 
come confounded  in  a  single  mass.  The  medullary  collar,  thus 
formed,  is  composed  of  three  pairs  of  ganglia,  namely :  the 
cephalic  ganglia  (fg.  11,  c),  the  tentacular  ganglia  (J),  and  the 
thoracic  ganglia  (g) ;  the  two  first  pairs  are  placed  above  the 
oesophagus,  and,  by  joining  the  first,  form  a  double  collar  around 
this  tube;  sometimes  they  are  very  distinct,  but  at  others,  they 
are  almost  entirely  confounded.  The  cephalic  ganglia  give  rise 
laterally  to  two  large  nervous  cords,  which,  from  their  origin, 
enlarge  into  ganglia,  and  then  furnish  the  optic  nerves ;  from 
this  species  of  brain,  nerves  also  arise,  which  go  to  the  mouth, 
and  sometimes  form  around  this  opening  a  new  collar,  fur- 
nished with  two  pairs  of  small  ganglia  (Jig.  5,  page  13).  The 
tentacular  ganglia  afford  origin  to  the  nerves  of  the  feet  or  ten- 
tacula,  which,  before  ramifying  on  these  organs,  also  present 
ganglionic  swellings.  Finally,  the  thoracic  ganglia,  sometimes 
very  distinct  from  the  preceding,  and  at  others  confounded  with 
them  (see  Jig .  6,  page  17),  furnish  many  nerves,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  are,  ls£,  The  two  nerves  of  the  viscera  (Jig.  11,  0), 
which  in  their  course  present  a  pair  of  ganglia  and  distribute 
their  branches  to  the  branchiae,  the  heart,  stomach,  &c. ;  2cZ,  The 
nerves  of  the  mantle,  which,  in  the  dibranchial  cephalopods, 


11.  Where  are  the  eyes  situated  in  cephalopods?    Are  cephalopods  ca- 
pable of  hearing  ? 

12.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  nervous  system  of  eephalopodt ' 

3 


26 


NERVES  OF  CEPHALOPODS. 


terminate  in  ganglia, 
from  which  arise  a  great 
many  filaments.  In  the  tetra- 
branchial  cephalopods,  the 
cesophageal  collar  is  simply 
protected  by  the  cephalic  car- 
tilage; but  in  the  dibranchial 
cephalopods,  in  which  the 
nervous  system  acquires  its 
highest  degree  of  develop- 
ment, this  medullary  mass 
is  lodged  in  a  special  cavity, 
hollowed  in  the  cartilage 
through  which  the  oesopha- 
gus passes. 

13.  The  cephalopods  are 
never  hermaphrodite,  as  are 
most  others  of  the  mollusca. 
The  ovary  is  always  simple 
and  lodged  at  the  bottom  of 
a  sac  formed  by  the  body  of 
the  animal;  sometimes  there 
is  but  a  single  oviduct;  at 
others,  we  find  two,  which 
open  at  the  base  of  the  fun- 
nel ;    finally,  all   these  ani- 
mals are  oviparous. 

14.  All    these   molluska 
are  marine :  they  are  very 
voracious,  and  feed  chiefly 
on    Crustacea    and     fishes, 

which  they  seize  by  the  aid  of  their  supple  and  vigorous  arms, 
and  easily  devour  by  means  of  their  sharp  mandibles.  Their 
flesh  is  eaten. 

15.  This  class  is  divided  into  two  families. 


Fig.  11. — NERVOUS    SYSTEM    OF 
THE   NAUTILUS. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  11. — Nervous  system  of  the  Nautilus : — r.  the  brain; 
— o.  the  optic  nerves ; — g.  the  sub-oesophageal  or  thoracic  ganglia ; — t.  the 
tentacular  ganglia ; — p.  nerves  of  the  tentacula ; — e.  the  nerves  of  the  funnel ; 
— a.  a  ganglion  from  which  arise  other  tentacular  nerves  (fe) ; — d.  a  second, 
and  similar  ganglion,  also  giving  rise  to  tentacular  nerves  (/) ; — m.  nerves 
of  the  mantle,  &c. — v.  the  great  visceral  nerves,  each  of  which  gives  rise  to 
a  ganglion  (#»),  from  which  the  principal  nerves  of  the  viscera  take  their 
origin. 

13.  Do  cephalopods  lay  eggs  ? 

J  4.  Where  are  cephalopods  found  ?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ? 

15.  How  is  the  class  of  cephalopoda  divided  ?          •  •"-, . 


DIBRANCHIAL  CEPHALOPODS.  27 

16.  The  family  of  CEPHALOPODA,  DIBRANCHIATA, — or  ACE- 
TABULI'FERA, — that  is,  cupping-glass  bearers,  is  very  numerous. 
In  it  are  placed  the  poulpes,  cuttle-fishes,  calmaries,  argonauts, 
&c.     Most  of  these  mollusks   have  no  external  shell,  and  their 
naked  skin  includes  a  great  number  of  contractile  vesicles,  filled 
with  differently  coloured  fluids,  which,  by  alternately  contracting 
and  expanding,  produce  and  cause  again  to  disappear,  in  turn, 
often  very  brilliant  spots;  but  we  find  in  their  interior  a  more  or 
less  developed  shell,  situated  on  the  back.     This  shell  is  largest 
in  the  cuttle-fishes;  it  is  oval,  and  composed  for  the  most  part  of 
a  great  number  of  transverse  calcareous  laminae;  it  is  very  com- 
mon on  the  sea-shore,  and  is  generally  known  under  the  name 
of  cuttle -Jish  bone.    In  the  calmaries  it  is  of  a  horny  consistence, 
and  in  its  form  resembles  a  feather  or  lamella ;  and  in  the  poul- 
pes it  is  merely  represented  by  two  horny  stylets,  lodged  in  the 
thickness  of  the  mantle. 

17.  The  tentacula  of  these  cephalopods  form  a  simple  crown 
around  the  mouth,  and  bear  on  their  internal  face  circular  cups 
or  suckers,  the  number  of  which  varies  from  eight  to  ten.     In 
the  following  family  we  shall  find  an  entirely  different  arrange- 
ment. 

18.  The  POULPES—  Octopus  (Fig.  7,  Page  19)— are  easily 
recognised  by  their  naked   body,  which   is  in   the  form  of  an 
oval  sack,  unprovided  with  fins,  and  their  eight  very  large  and 
nearly  equal    feet.     They  make   use   of  these   last   organs   to 
seize  their  prey  as  well  as  to  swim  and  crawl  upon  the  ground, 
and  are  even  formidable  to  swimmers  on  account  of  the  force 
with  which  they  press  those  bodies  they  embrace.     These  ani- 
mals are  essentially  carnivorous.     Their  size  is  often  very  great : 
there  is  one  species  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  attains   about 
six   feet  in   length.     These  mollusks  are   objects   of  terror   to 
the  natives  of  the  Polynesian  Islands,  who  dive  to  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  for  shells;  but  their  size  and  strength  are  wonder- 
fully exaggerated.     Pliny  speaks  of  a    poulpe  that    had   arms 
thirty   feet    long;    and    a    modern    author   gravely   relates   the 
history  of  one  of  these  gigantic  mollusks,  which,  attacking  a 
vessel,  nearly  upset  it !     The  Common  Poulpe — Sepia  Octopo- 
dia — is  about  two  feet  long;  it  inhabits  the  coasts  of  Europe, 
and  commonly  keeps  among  rocks :  it  destroys  a  great  many 
fishes  and  Crustacea. 


16.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  cephalopoda  dibranchiata  ? 
What  is  cuttle-fish  bone7 

17.  How  are  the  tentacula  of  cephalopods  arranged? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  poulpes  ?    What  is  the  nature 
of  their  food  ?     Where  are  they  found  ? 


28 


ARGONAUTS. 


Ftp.  12. — \RGONAUT. 

19.  The  ARGONAUTS — Argonn.uta  (Fig.  12) — are  cephalopoda 
very  closely  allied  to  the  poulpe,  but  the  pair  of  feet  which  is 
nearest  the  back  is  dilated  at  the  extremity  into  a  broad  mem- 
brane, and  the  body  is  always  lodged  in  a  very  delicate  and  ex- 
tremely beautiful  shell,  vulgarly  called  the  paper  nautilus.  It  is 
not  certainly  known,  however,  whether  this  shell  really  belongs 
to  the  animal  tnat  inhabits  it,  or  whether  it  is  derived  from  some 
other  rnollusk.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  cephalopod  does  not  ad- 
nere  to  it,  but  uses  it  as  a  boat  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water 

1 9    What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  argonaut  ? 


CALMARIES— CALMARETS. 


29 


when  the  sea  is  calm.  Six  of  its  tentacula  are  then  folded  be- 
neath and  act  as  oars,  and  it  is  pretended  that  the  two  others, 
the  extremities  of  which  are  enlarged  and  raised  up,  are  spread 
for  sails,  as  represented  in  the  figure  (12)  ;  but  we  should  not 
infer  from  their  structure  that  these  tentacula  are  adapted  to  such 
a  purpose.  The  common  species  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Indian  Ocean,  &c. ;  it  was  known  to  the  ancients  under  the 
name  of  nautilus,  and  pompilius. 

20.  The  CALMARIES — Loligo — differ  from  the  preceding  in  their 
elongated  sack,  and  being  provided  with  two  terminal  fins,  by  the 
horny  lamina,  lodged  in 
the  back,  which  supplies 
the  place  of  shell,  and  by 
their  tentacula,  which  are 
ten  in  number,  and  not 
of  the  same  configura- 
tion throughout  (fg.  13).  ty  13'-THE  COMMON  CALMARY. 

Eight  of  these  feet  are  of  moderate  size,  and  are  armed  with  little 
cups  in  their  whole  length,  while  the  two  others  are  very  much 
elongated  and  have  cups  only  near  their  extremities. 

21.  The  CALMARETS — Lo- 
ligopsis — are  remarkable  for 
the  great  length  of  two  of  their 
arms  (fg.  14),  which  are  fili- 
form, and  widened  at  the  entl 
only ;  in  other  respects  they 

f  differ  but  little  from  the  Cal- 
maries  :  they  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

22.  Certain    cephalopoas, 
which  resemble  the  Calmaries 
very  much,    but   have   their 
long     arms    furnished    with 
hooks,    form   the    genus    of 
Onychoteuthis   (from    the 
Greek  onux,  in  the  genitive 
onuchos,  nail,  and  teuthis,  a 
calmary,  that  is,  a  calmary 
with  nails. 

23.  The    CUTTLE-FISHES 
Fig.  14.— THE  CALMARET.            — Sepia— have  the  tentacular 

20.  How  do  the  Calmaries  differ  from  the  Argonauts  ? 

21.  What  are  Calmarets? 

22.  What  is  the  ony'choteuthis  ?  (pronounced  o-ni-ko-tu-this.) 

23.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  cuttle-fish  ?     Of  what  use  u 
euttle-fish  bone  ? 

2T 


30  CUTTLE-FISHES.— NAUTILUS. 

appendages  arranged  like  the  calmaries;  but  their  body,  which 
is  oval  and  depressed,  is  furnished  with  fleshy,  lateral  fins,  occu- 
pying the  whole  length  of  the  sack,  and  the  back  is  sustained  by 
a  large  internal  shell,  the  structure  of  which  has  been  already 
mentioned.  The  species  most  commonly  found  in  the  seas  of 
Europe — Sepia  ojficinalis — attains  a  foot  in  length  or  more. 
The  cuttle-fish  bone  or  shell,  in  powder,  is  used  as  a  dentifrice, 
and  is  employed  in  the  arts  for  several  purposes,  as  for  polishing, 
for  forming  moulds  for  silver  castings,  and  as  a  pounce. 

24.  The  family  of  CEPHALOPODA  TETRABRAIVCHIATA  has  for 
its  type  the  NAUTILUS,  a  very  remarkable  mollusk,  the  body  of 
which  is  enclosed  in  the  last  chamber  (a)  of  a  large  shell,  folded 

spirally,  and  divided  by  transverse 
partitions  (b)  into   several  cavities, 
(Jig.  15).     Each  one  of  these  par- 
titions is  pierced  by  a  hole,  and  the 
canal  thus  formed,  which  is  called 
the  syphon  (s),  extends  to  the  pos- 
terior extremity  of  the  shell ;  it  is 
traversed    by   a    contractile   mem- 
branous tube,  posterior  to  the  body 
of    the    animal.       This    structure 
b    c         seems  designed  to  facilitate  the  as- 
Fig.  15. — SECTION  OF  A         cent  or  descent  of  the  animal  in  the 
NAUTILUS.  water,  by  increasing  or  diminishing 

the  specific  gravity  of  the  shell  ;  for  the  syphon  communicates 
with  an  external  reservoir,  an^l  can  empty  or  distend  itself  with 
the  water  found  in  it ;  now,  the  chambers  which  it  passes  through 
are  filled  with  air,  and  when  this  tube  becomes  inflated,  it  must 
compress  this  elastic  fluid,  arid  increase  its  density,  which,  at  the 
same  time,  augments  the  specific  gravity  of  the  whole  shell,  and 
must  give  it  a  tendency  to  sink  towards  the  bottom  of  the  water 
in  which  it  floats. 

25.  The  conformation  of  the  animal  differs  very  much  from 
that  of  the  poulpes,  calmaries,  and  other  dibranchial  cephalopods. 
The  head  of  the  nautilus  is  surrounded  by  a  large  fleshy  disk, 
which  bears  some  analogy  to  the  foot  of  the  gasteropods,  and 


Explanation  of  F'g.  15. — Vertical  section  of  the  nautilus  shell: — a.  the 
last  chamber,  in  which  the  animal  is  lodged  ; — b.  one  of  the  partitions  which 
divides  the  chambers  (c)  from  each  other  ; — *.  the  syphon. 

24.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  nautilus  shell  ?     What  seems  to  be 
the  object  of  this  peculiar  structure  ? 

25.  How  is  the  animal  01  me  nautilus  cnaracterized  ? 


AMMONITES. 


probably  serves 
the  animal  in 
crawling.  The 
tentacula,  which 
are  inserted  near 
the  mouth,  are 
not  furnished 
with  cups  as  in 
the  preceding 
family  :  they  are 
retractile  and  in 
considera  bie 
number.  The 
eyes  are  pedun- 
culate, that  is, 
supported  on  a 
sort  of  foot-stalk 
or  stem  :  there 
is  no  organ  of 
hearing,  nor 
pouch,  nor  fins, 
and  the  branchice 

are  four  in  num- 

i  er  Fig.  16.  —  NAUTILUS. 

26.  A  great  number  of  shells  are  found  in  the  fossil  stato 
which  are  very  analogous  in  structure  to  the  nautilus,  and  which 
probably  belonged  to  cephalopods  of  similar  conformation;  they 
are  the  AMMONITES  (fig.  17),  vulgarly  called  Horns  of  Amman, 
in  consequence  of  the  resemblance  of 
their  volutes  or  whorls  to  those  of  a 
ram's  horn.  These  animals  were 
among  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of 
the  earth  and  lived  in  every  sea.  Their 
remains  abound  in  the  secondary  for- 
mations (See  GEOLOGY),  and  are  met 
with  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  they 
have  long  since  disappeared  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  in  those  lay- 
ers  which  rest  upon  the  chalk,  no! 

Fig.    17.-AMMONITE. 


quently,  their  destruction  must  have  occurred  at  a  period  long 

Explanation  of  Fig.  16.  —  The  nautilus  shell  opened  :  —  t.  the  tentacula  ;— 
e.  the  funnel  or  reservoir  ;  —  p.  the  foot  ;  —  m.  part  of  the  mantle  ;  —  0.  the  eye  , 
—  8.  the  syphon. 

26.  What  are  ammonites  ?     Where  are  they  found  ? 


32  BELEMNITES.— NUMMULITES,  &c. 

anterior  to  the  creation  of  nearly  all  the  mammals ;  they  vary 
much  in  form,  and  still  more  in  size;  some  are  not  larger  than  a 
bean,  and  others  are  more  than  four  feet  in  diameter.  More  than 
three  hundred  species  of  them  are  known,  and  they  are  divided 
into  several  genera,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  shell  is 
rolled,  the  position  of  the  syphon,  the  form  of  the  partitions,  &c. 

27.  We  give  the  name  of  BELEMNITES  (from  the  Greek  belem- 
won,  a  dart)  to  other  fossils,  which  also  seem  to  have  belonged  to 
the  cephalopods,  but  which,  in  place  of  being  an  external  shell, 
must  have  been  lodged  in  the  interior  of  the  animal,  like  the  bone 
of  the  cuttle-fish.  They  are  conical  in  form,  and  are  chiefly 
composed  of  a  series  of  little  horns,  fitting  one  in  the  other  like 
boxes  in  a  nest,  traversed  by  a  syphon  and  terminated  anteriorly 
by  a  horny  plate  that  forms  a  sort  of  chamber,  in  the  interior  of 
which  we  sometimes  find  the  remains  of  an  ink-bag,  similar  to 
the  sack  which  fulfils  the  same  purposes  in  the  naked  cephalo- 
pods. The  belemnites  are  not  met  with  in  strata  as  old  as  the 
ammonites  ;  but  they  abound  in  the  middle  and  upper  layers  of 
the  secondary  formation,  and  cease  to  exist  in  the  upper  layers 
of  the  chalk. 

Until  lately,  a  host  of  microscopic  shells  of  lenticular  form  and 
without  apparent  opening,  designated  by  authors  under  the  names 
of  NUMMULITES  (from  the  Latin  numrna,  a  piece  of  money), 
CAMERINES  (from  the  Latin  camera,  chamber),  FORAMINIFERA 
(from  the  Latin  foramen,  a  hole,  and  fero,  I  bear),  &c.,  were 
referred  to  the  order  of  cephalopods ;  these  little  bodies  abound 
to  such  an  extent  in  certain  soils,  that  they  of  themselves  exclu- 
sively constitute  chains  of  hills  and  immense  banks  of  building 
stone  ;  but  they  are  also  found  in  European  seas,  and,  on  observ- 
ing them  when  alive,  we  are  convinced  that  the  animals  to  which 
they  belong  do  not  resemble  either  the  cephalopods  or  even  the 
mollusks,  in  anything  :  they  are  beings  of  a  very  peculiar  struc- 
ture, and  seem  more  to  approximate  the  polypi. 

27  What  are  belemnites  ?  What  are  their  characters  ?  Where  are  they 
found  ? 


CLASS  OF  GASTEROPODA.  33 


LESSON  III. 

CLASS  or  GASTEROPODA. — General  Conformation — Classifi- 
cation. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  PULMONEA. — Organization — Division 
into  two  families. 

FAMILY  OF  TERRESTRIAL  PULMONEA. — Limax — Vaginvlus — 
Helix — Bulimus — Pupa — Chondrus — Clausilia — Achatina. 

FAMILY  OF  AQUATIC  PULMONEA. — Onchidium — Planorbis — 
Limncevs — Physa — Auricula. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  PECTINIBRANCHIATA. — Organization 
— Classification. 

FAMILY  OF  TROCHOIDES. —  Trochus — Turbo — Dclphinula — 
—  Turritella —  Cyclostoma — Valvata — Paludinn —  Liftorina 
— Monodon — Phasianella — Ampullaria — Janthina  —  Nerita. 

CLASS  OF   GASTEROPODA. 

1.  Mollusks  that  are  provided  with  a  head,  and  crawl  upon  the 
belly,  or  swim  by  means  of  a  fin  formed  of  this  part  of  the  body, 
constitute  a  very  numerous  class,  the  type  of  which  is  the  slug 
and  snail.  The  body  is  elongated,  and  terminated  anteriorly  by 
a  more  or  less  developed  head,  which  ordinarily  has  tentacula 
inserted  above  the  mouth ;  the  back  is  furnished  with  a  mantle, 
which  extends  more  or  less,  and  the  belly  is  covered  by  a 
fleshy  mass,  generally  in  form  of  a  broad  disk  (fig.  18),  and 
serves  the  animal  for  crawling  on  the  ground,  but  which  is  some- 
times very  much 
compressed,  and 
then  constitutes  a 
vertical  fin  (fig. 
78).  Many  of  these 
animals  are  en- 
tirely naked; 
others  have  an  in- 
ternal shell  con- 
cealed in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  mantle; 
but  most  of  them 
have  an  external  Fig.  18.— LIMN^E— FRESH- WATER  SNAIL. 

shell,      and      this 

calcareous  envelope  is  almost  always  sufficiently  large  to  contain 
them  entirely,  and  afford  them  protection. 

1.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  class  of  ga'steropods  ?   Have  thev 
any  shell? 


84 


COLUMELLA.— UMBILICUS. 


2.  The  arrangement  of  these  shells  varies  much  ;  sometimes 
they  are  composed  of  many  pieces,  at  others,  of  a  single  piece  , 
sometimes  they  are  symmetrical,  at  others  not  symmetrical,  and 
in  this  last  case,  in  proportion  as  they  are  elongated,  they  are 
rolled  or  twisted  upon  themselves,  and  constitute  a  spirally 
twisted  cone.  This  last  form,  which  is 
seen  in  the  shell  of  the  snail,  is  the  most 
common  in  gasteropods,  and  presents 
numerous  varieties.  Sometimes  the  part 
which  grows  less  rapidly  and  upon  which 
the  cone  rolls  itself,  is  full  (Jig.  19),  and 
sometimes  empty  ;  it  is  called  columella 
or  pillar  (c),  and,  when  empty,  we  give 
d  the  name  of  umbilicus  to  this  opening 
(fg.  20,  ti).  If  the  turns  of  the  shell 
remain  in  the  same  plane,  the  spire  is 
flat  or  concave,  and  the  general  form  of  the 
shell  is  discoid,  resembling  a  disk,  as  in  the 
planorbis  (Jig.  29) ;  sometimes  the  height 
of  each  turn  completely  envelopes  thepreceding  involutions,  so  that 
the  spire  is  concealed  ;  but  in  most  cases  the  turns  are  inclined 
towards  the  edge  of  the  columella,  and  there  results  an  oblique 
spire,  which  is  more  acute  in  proportion  as 
the  cone  is  less  rapidly  widened  (Jig.  19). 
Those  shells  are  called  turbinated,  in 
which  the  first  turns  are  raised  up  above 
the  succeeding  ones  (Jig.  19),  forming  a 
projecting  spire,  and  it  is  remarked  that 
the  turns  or  whorls  are  almost  always  di- 
rected from  the  right  side.  Sometimes  how- 
ever the  spire  of  these  turbinated  shells  is 
turned  from  the  left  side  of  the  animal 
(Jig.  25),  and  in  this  case  they  are  said  to 
be  perverse. 


Fig.  19. — SECTION  OF 

A    TURBINATED    SHELL. 


Fig.  20.  NATICA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  19. — Section  of  a  turbinated  shell  to  show  how  it  is 
spirally  wound  upon  itself': — b.  the  mouth  or  aperture  of  the  shell ; — c.  the 
columella  ; — d.  l^e  part  of  the  columella  included  in  the  last  turn  of  the  spire 
— s.  turn  of  the  spiie  next  to  the  last; — p.  the  apex  or  summit  of  the  shell;— 
i.  part  of  tne  columella. 


2.  Do  the  shells  of  ga'sterqpods  consist  of  a  single  piece  ?  What  is  meant 
by  the  colume'tla  ?  What  is  the  umbili'cus  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  tu  binated 
«hcl!  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  perverse  shell  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  GAfeTREOFODS. 


ap  p 


3.  The  mass   of  the  viscera  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the 
cone  formed  by  these  shells,  and  always  remains  enclosed  in  it , 
but  the  head  arid  foot  project  externally  when  the  animal  extends 
itself  to  walk,  and  return  again  into  the  last  turn  of  the  spire, 
when  it  contracts  :  and  the  size  of  this  latter  part  of  the  shell  and 
the  form  of  its  open- 
ing   are    always   in 

relative  proportion  to  / 
the  foot.     In  most  of 
the  aquatic  gastero- 
pod  rnollusks,  with  a     . 
spiral  shell,  there  is 
a  horny  or  calcare-   P"' 
ous    disk    or    door, 
called  operculum 
(fg.  32,  o),    which 
is  fixed  to  the  poste- 
rior part  of  the  foot, 
and  which  closes  the 
entrance  of  the  shell, 
when      the      animal 
retires      into      it. — 
The  operculvm  of  certain  small  shells  constitutes  what  is  vulgar 
ly  termed  an  eye-stone. 

4.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  formed  sometimes  for  breath- 
ing the  air,  and  sometimes  for  aquatic  respiration  ;  but  in  rnollusks 
with  a  spiral  shell,  they  are  always  lodged  in  the  last  turn  of  the 
spire,  and  receive  the  ambient  element  beneath  its  edge,  either  by 
a  hole  pierced  through  the  mantle,  or  between  the  body  and  the 
free  edge  of  this  cutaneous  fold,  which  is  also  often  prolonged 
into  a  canal,  by  means  of  which  the  animal  can  obtain  the  fluid 
(whether   air  or    water)    necessary  for  its  respiration,    without 


0  ----  ! 


e        d        pi 

21. — ANATOMY  OF  A  SNAIL. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  21.  —  Anatomy  of  a  snail  ;  —  pi.  the  foot;  —  t.  the  tenta- 
cles partly  contracted  ;  —  d.  a  sort  of  diaphragm  which  separates  the  respira- 
tory cavity  from  the  other  viscera  ;  —  e.  a  portion  of  the  stomach  ;  —  -f.  the 
liver  ;  —  o.  the  ovary  ;  —  i.  the  intestines  ;  —  r.  the  rectum  ;  —  a.  the  anus  ;  —  e. 
the  heart  (the  pericardium  —  the  sack  containing  the  heart  —  being  open  ;— 
ap.  the  pulmonary  artery  ramifying  on  the  parietes  of  the  pulmonary  cavity 
(p}  ;  —  v.  the  gland  which  secretes  the  viscosity  ;  —  cv.  its  excretory  canal, 
going  to  open  near  the  anus. 


3.  In  what  part  of  spiral  shells  are  the  viscera  of  the  animal  contained  ? 
What  part  of  the  shell  contains  the  head  and  foot?  What  is  the  operculum  f 
What  are  eye-stones  ? 

4.  In  what  part  of  the  spiral  shells  are  the  organs  of  respiration  placed  7 
By  what  means  is  the  air  or  water  admitted  to  these  organs  ?    Where  is  the 
respiratory  tube  situated  ? 


36  STRUCTURE  OF  GASTEROPOD3. 

putting  its  head  or  foot  out  of  its  shell.  In  this  latter  case,  the 
shell  has  on  its  edge  a  notch  or  canal,  destined  to  lodge  the  re- 
spiratory tube  ;  this  notch  is  near  the  termination  of  the  columella, 
and  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  towards  which  the  spire  is  di- 
rected. Consequently  this  canal  is  to  the  left,  in  the  commcn 
species,  and  to  the  right,  in  perverse  shells. 

5.  The  heart  (fig.  21,  c)  is  always  aortic  :  it  is  generally  com- 
posed of  an   auricle  and  a  ventricle,  and  its  position,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  respiratory  tube,  is  in  relation  to  the  direction  of 
the  spire  of  the  shell.     This  organ  is  situate  on  the  same  side 
with  the  tube,  that  is.  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  towards  which 
the  shell  turns,  and  the  procreative  organs  (the  form  of  which 
varies  much)  are  always  placed  on  this  latter  side,  and  conse- 
quently on  the  side  opposite  to  the  heart. 

6.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  contractile  lips,  and  sometimes 
armed  with  horny  teeth  which  occupy  the  palate.    In  many  other 
animals  of  this  class,  the  anterior  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  very 
fleshy,  and  possesses  the  faculty  of  projecting  itself  externally,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  constitute  a  trunk.     Sometimes  the  stomach 
is  also  furnished  with  cartilaginous  or  bony  pieces,  proper  for 
dividing  food;  the  intestine  is  folded  on  itself  and  lodged  between 
the  lobes  of  the  liver  and  ovary;  and  the  anus  (Jig'  21,  a)  is 
almost  always  situate  on  the  right  side  of  the  body. 

7.  In  this  class,  the  organs  of  the  senses  are  less  developed 
than  in  the  cephalopods  ;  the  tentacles,  which  most  gasteropods 
bear   on  their  front,  varying  in  number  from  two  to  six,  serve 
chiefly  for  tact  and  perhaps  for  smell.     No  organ  of  hearing 
has  been  found,  and  their  eyes,  which  are  sometimes  wanting, 
are  very  small,  and  of  a  very  simple  structure:    they  resemble 
those  of  the  nautilus,  and  are  sometimes  adherent  to  the  head, 
and  sometimes  borne  at  the  base  on  the  side,  or  at  the  end  of  the 
lentacula. 

8.  The  class  of  gasteropods  is  divided  into  eight  orders,  tho 
principal  characteristics  of  which  are  derived  from  the  disposition 
of  the  branchial  (brank-e-al)  apparatus,  as  may  be  seen  in  tho 
following  table : 


6.  What  is  the  character  of  the  heart  in  ga'steropods  ? 
6   What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  digestive  organs  ? 

7.  Wnere  are  the  tenta'cula  placed  ?    What  is  the  number  of  tentacles  in 
ga'steropods  ?    Where  are  their  eyes  situated  ? 

8.  Into  how  many  orders  is  the  class  of  ga'steropods  divided  ?  Upon  what 
are  these  divisions  founded  ? 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  GASTEROPODS. 


87 


having  lungs 


(ORDERS.) 
PULMONEA. 


r;"b7na,r  •  j  PEC™ 

in   a   dorsal 

cavity,  open 

Tubiform.         J-TUBULIBRANCHIATA. 

above       the  < 

head. 

Very  open  ;    1 

fejO 

"1 
"3 

Shell 

ordinarily  in    '  SCUT,BRANCHIATA. 
form  of  a 

. 

c 

o 

shield. 

2 

13 

o 

§ 

1 

0 

beneath  a  fold  of  the  mantle,  1 

a- 

<° 

which    almost    always    con-  [  m 
tains  a   shell,   or  beneath  a  ^ECTIBRANCHIATA. 

CD 

% 

.straight  edge  of  the  foot.         J 

3 

(5 

("shell   not    turbi-  j 

£ 

13 

1 

*  beneath    |  nate;  of  one    or  >  CYCLOBRANCHIATA. 

•o 

c 

the  edge  <    more     pieces.    \ 

i 

CO 

_ 

of      the    1 

HI 

c  , 

0    ^ 

mantle,     t  Without  a  shell.  ^  INFEROBRANCHIATA. 

l 

"is 

OJ 

be 
C 

• 
L  C 

.upon  the  back.                          J^NUDIBRANCHIATA. 

2 

vertically  compressed,  and  only  fit  for   1  „ 

ORDER   OF  GASTEROPODA    PUX.IKONEA. 

9.  Gasteropods  formed  for  aerial  respiration  have  no  branchiae, 
but  have  a  cavity  on  the  back,  upon  the  parietes  of  which  the 
pulmonary  vessels  form  a    complicated   net-work  (See  fig.  21, 
page  35),  and  the  lung  receives  the  external  air  through  a  hole 
in  the  edge  of  the  mantle  above  the  right  side  of  the  nape,  which 
is  susceptible  of  being  opened  or  shut  at  the  will  of  the  animal. 
All  the  pulmonic  gasteropods  are  not  however  terrestrial  mol 
lusks.     Many  of  them  live  in  the  water;    but   then    they  are 
obliged  to  come  to  the  surface  from  time  to  time,  to  obtain  air 
necessary  for  their  respiration.     All  these  animals  feed  on  vege- 
table substances. 

10.  The  order  of  pulmonic   gasteropods  is  divided  into  two 
families  ;  the  terrestrial  pvlmonea,  and  the  aquatic  pulmonea. 

11.  The   FAMILY    OF  PULMONEA    TERRESTRIA  are  general- 
ly recognised  with  ease  by  their  four  tentacles.     These  append- 
ages  are  retractile,  and  those  forming   the  upper  pair,  which 

9.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the 
-jrder  of  Ga'steropoda  Pulmonea?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ? 

10.  How  is  the  order  of  pulmonic  ga'steropods  divided  ? 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  terrestrial  pulmwea? 


86  SLUGS. 


are  longest,  have  the  eyes  at  their  extremities.  The  mouth  la 
armed  with  one  palatine  tooth,  and  a  small  tongue  studded  with 
microscopic  teeth ;  and  the  body  varies  in  form ;  some  are 
naked  or  only  provided  with  an  internal  shell,  while  others  have 
an  external  shell  spirally  twisted,  with  a  blunt  summit,  and  the 
mouth  without  a  notch.  The  small  tribe  formed  by  the  first  is 
divided  into  Limax,  Vaginula,  dec.  The  tribe  of  terrestrial  pul- 
monea  with  an  external  shell  comprises  the  genera  of  helix,  vitrina, 
bvlimus,  pupa,  chondrus,  succinea,  clausilia,  and  achatina. 

12.  The   LIMACES    (slugs)    form  the  type  of  the   terrestrial 
pulmonea  without   apparent   shell.     The    body,    as   every    one 
knows,  is  elongated,  and  their  mantle  is  a  fleshy  disk,  scarcely 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  skin  (fig.  22,  m,)  and  which  only 
occupies  the  fore  part  of  the  back,  where  it  covers  the  pulmo- 
nary cavity ;  it  often  encloses  in  its  thickness  a  small,  flat  shell. 
On  the  right  side  of  this  species  of  shield,  there  is  a  notch,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  we  observe  a  contractile  opening  (jig.  22, 
ro),  that  leads  into  the  pulmonary  cavity  ;  the  anus  is  situate 
upon  the  anterior  border  of  this  respiratory  orifice,  and  a  third 
opening  belonging  to  the  procreative  apparatus  is  situate  on  the 
external  side  of  the   base  of  the  right  superior   tentacle.     The 
four  tentacula  are  cylindrical,  more  or  less  swelled  at  the  end, 
and  hollow  ;  they  are  drawn  in  and  pushed  out,  on  unrolling 
themselves,  like  the  inverted  fingers  of  a  glove,  by  the  aid  of 
muscular  fibres  lodged   in  their   interior ;    the  eyes,  which  are 
borne  on  the  ends  of  the  superior  tentacles   (fig.  22,  st),  are 
black ;   the  mouth  is  armed  with  a  sort  of  palatine  tooth  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent',  and  a  smooth  tongue.     The  heart  is  lodged 
in  a  particular  cavity  beneath  the  mantle,  and  is  composed  of  an 
oval  auricle,  which  receives  a  large  pulmonary  vein,  and  a  pear- 
shaped  ventricle,  from  which  the  aorta  arises.     And  there  exists 
near  the  heart  a  secretory  apparatus  which  pours  out  a  viscid 
matter  upon  the  external  surface,  through  an  excretory  canal, 
opening  near  the  respiratory  orifice. 

13.  These  animals   are    herbivorous:    they  feed    principally 
upon  young  plants,  fruits,  mushrooms,  and  are  most  voracious 
towards  evening.     During  the  heat  of  the  day  they  remain  con- 
cealed   in    holes  under    stones,    or    some  heap  of  half-decayed 
leaves,  or  even  in  the  earth,  and  they  seldom  go  out  except  in 
the   morning  and  evening,   when  the  air   is    humid;   they  are 
especially  abundant    after  rain.     During  the  cold  season  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  ground  and  remain  torpid. 

12.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Lima'ces  ? 

13.  Upon  what  do  the  Lima'ces  feed  ?     Where  are  tb«»  found?     What 
%ecoraes  of  them  in  the  cold  season  ? 


SLUGS.— SNAILS. 


14.  Some,  called  ARIONS,  have  the  pulmonary  orifice  situate 
near  the  anterior  part  of  the  dorsal  shield,  such  as  the  Limax 
rnfvs,  which  is  everywhere  met  with  in  wet  weather;  [a  de- 
coction of  this  species  is  sometimes  used  in  France  for  pulmo- 
nary disorders  :]  the  others,  named  Limax  properly  so  called,  or 


Fig.  22. — LIMAX  RUFUS. 

Lima,  have  this  orifice  situate  more  posteriorly,  and  frequently 
have  a  pretty  well  formed  internal  shell  ;  the  Limax  cinerevs, 
which  inhabits  caves  and  shady  forests,  belongs  to  this  division, 
as  well  as  the  Limax  agrestis,  which  abounds  in  some  countries, 
and  is  very  injurious  to  agriculture. 

We  give  the  names  of  VAGINULA,  TESTACELLA,  and  PAR-MA- 
CELLA  to  other  naked  gasteropods,  nearly  resembling  the  limaces 
but  which  differ  from  them  in  the  position  of  the  anus,  the  extent 
of  the  mantle,  &c. 

15.  The  SNAILS — Helix — form  the  most  important  tribe  of 
terrestrial  pulmonea  with  a  complete  and  apparent  shell. — 
Their  organization  differs  very  little  from  that  of  the  limaces  ; 
the  mantle,  instead  of  being  in  the  form  of  a  convex  shield, 
constitutes  a  large  cone  twisted  r*n  itself,  containing  the  viscera, 
which  is  covered  by  the  shell  (Jig.  21,  p.  35).  We  distinguish 
them  by  their  shell,  the  opening  of  which  is  ordinarily  raised 
like  a  pad  or  collar,  forming  a  thickened  lip  in  the  adult ;  the  shell 
is  a  little  twisted  by  the  projection  of  the  penultimate  whorl  of 
the  spire,  and  in  this  way  takes  somewhat  of  a  crescent  shape. 
In  snails  properly  so  called,  this  opening  is  at  least  as  broad 
as  high,  and  the  shell  is  sometimes  globular  and  sometimes 
depressed.  The  habits  of  these  mollusks  are  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  the  limaces.  In  summer  they  are  very  voracious, 
but  in  the  autumn  they  eat  very  little,  and,  on  the  approach  of 

Explanation  of  Fig.  22. — Limax  rufus  : — st,  the  eyes  on  the  extremity 
of  the  superior  tentacles  ; — in.  the  mantle  ; — ro.  the  notch  over  the  pulmona- 
ry cavity. 

14.  What  are  Arions  ? 

15.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  snails  ?  What  are  their  ha  hits  7 
Do  their  wounds  heal  ?    In  what  respect  does  the  genus  Ileiix  differ  from 
tne  genus  Limax  ? 


40 


BULIMES.— PUPA. 


winter,  they  retire  into  some  hole,  draw  themselves  into  theiv 
shell,  shutting  up  the  mouth  with  a  calcareous  matter,  secreted 
by  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  and  remain  torpid  until  spring. — 
Very  curious,  and  frequently  repeated  experiments,  have  proved 
that  not  only  do  wounds  inflicted  on  these  animals  readily  heal, 
but  that  considerable  portions  of  the  body,  after  being  removed, 
can  be  renewed.  The  eyes,  the  tentacles,  and  even  the  head  of 
snails  have  been  known  to  be  entirely  renewed  in  this  way.  A 
very  great  number  of  species  of  snails  are  known  ;  they  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

16.  We  give  the  name  of  VITRINA  to  snails 
the  shell  of  which  is  very  thin,  flattened  and  un- 
provided with  a  thickened  lip,  and  too  small  to 
enclose  the  body  entirely  ;  some  small  species 
are  found  in  Europe.  The  BULIMES — -Bulinws 
(Jig.  23) — have  an  elongated  shell,  the  open- 
ing higher  than  wide,  furnished  with  a  thicken- 
ed lip,  and  without  notches.  A  small  species 
which  is  found  in  France,  is  re- 
markable for  the  singular  habit  of 
successively  breaking  the  whorls  of 
the  apex  of  the  shell.  There  is  a 
large  species  in  Brazil  which  is 
eaten  as  a  delicacy.  Other  mollusks  of  the  same 
tribe,  the  genus  Pupa,  have  an  ellipsoid,  or  even 
almost  cylindrical  shell,  with  the  opening  higher 
than  wide,  furnished  with  a  thickened,  notched,  and 
generally  dentate  lip  (Jig.  24) :  they  are  of  small 
size,  and  live  in  humid  places,  among  moss,  &c. 
Shells  of  the  genus  Chondrus  also 
have  a  notched  and  dentate  lip;  but 
their  form  is  more  ovoid. 

17.  The  genus  of  CLAUSILIA  is  composed  of  small 
mollusks  which  live  in  moss,  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and 
have  a  shell  similar  to  that  of  the  Pupa,  but  much 
more  slender  and  pointed  (fig>  25). 

P     25          18.  The  AMBRETTES — Succinea — differ    from   all 
CLAUSILIA    tne  Preceding  in  the  absence  of  a  thickened  lip  around 
L.EVIS.      the  opening  of  the  shell,  which  is  oval,  and  too  small 


Fig.  23. 

BULIMUS. 


Fig.  24. 

PUPA. 


16.  What  is  the  Vitrina?    What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Bull- 
mus  ?    How  is  the  ge.ius  Pupa  distinguished  ? 

17.  Of  what  is  the  genus  Clausi'lia  composed  ? 

18.  What  are  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  Ambrettes  ?    Where  are 
they  found  '( 


ACHATINA.— ONCHIDIUM. 


41 


Fig.  26. 

AMBRETTE. 


to  lodge  the  entire  animal  (fig.  26) :  the  shell 
is  thin  and  translucent,  and  obtains  its  name 
from  a  supposed  resemblance  to  amber:  they 
live  upon  plants  that  grow  along  the  margins 
of  rivulets  and  brooks. 

19.  The  genus  of 
ACHATINA  (fig. 
27)  is  composed  of 
large  snails,  which, 
in  warm  countries, 
feed  on  shrubs  ;  they  have  an  oblong 
shell  with  the  opening  wider  than  it 
is  high,  without  a  thickened  lip,  and 
truncate  at  the  extremity  of  the  colu- 
mella,  a  disposition  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  shell  of  most  ma- 
rine gasteropods. 

20.  The    family    of    PULMONEA 
AQUATICA   have    but    two   tentacles 
(fig.  18,  page  33);   their   mode  of 
respiration  obliges  them  to  come  fre- 
quently to  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
breathe  :    they  cannot   keep  at  great 
depths,  and   they    ordinarily  live   in 
fresh  waters,  or  near  coasts. 

21.  As  in  the  preceding  family,  we  find  here  mollusks  without 
a  shell,  and  others  that  are  provided  with  one :  the  first  form  thi 
genus  of  Onchidium  (fig.  28),  which  have  a  very  straight  anl 
very  extensible  elongated  body ;  they  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of 


Fig.  27. — ACHATINA. 


Fig.   28. ONCHTDIUM 


19.  What  shells  form  the  genus  of  Achatina?  (pronounced  a-ka.te.na). 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Pulmonea  Aquatica. 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Onchidiam  ? 

4*  2U 


42 


PLANORBIS.— LIMN,EA._PHYSA.— AURICULA. 


Fig.  29. PLANORBIS. 


the  warm  parts  of  both  continents  :  the  second  are  subdivided  into 
the  genera  of  PLANORBIS,  LIMN.EA,  AURICULA,  &c. 

22.  The  mollusks  of 'the  genus  PLANORBIS  have  a  thin  shell 
rolled  upon  the  same  plane,  which  is  consequently  discoid,  and 
the  whorls  very  gradually  increase  in  size  (Jig.  29).  Their 

tentacles  are  long  and 
filiform,  and  the  eyes 
are  placed  at  the  internal 
side  of  their  base.  These 
gasteropods  feed  on  vege- 
table substances,  and  in- 
habit stagnant  waters ;  in 
winter  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  and 
lie  torpid. 

23.  The  LIMN^A  (fig. 
18,  page  33)  have  the 
same  habits,  and  are  almost  always  found  4n  the  same  localities 
as  the  planorbis,  from  which  they  are  readily  distinguished  by 
the  form  of  their  shell,  the  spire  of  which  is  oblong ;  their  tenta- 
cles are  thick  and  triangular.  In  the  laying  season,  they  are 
often  found  in  great  numbers  joined  together,  so  as  to  form  a  sort 
of  chaplet.  They  swim  on  the  back  with  the  ventral  disk  extend- 
ed on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  in  winter  they  become  torpid 
like  the  planorbis. 

24.  We  give  the  name  of  PHYSA 
to  small  mollusks  found  in  foun- 
tains, the  shell  of  which  (fig.  30)  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  limnsea,  but 
very  thin,  without  a  thick  lip,  and 
without  a  fold  on  the  columella. 
The  animal,  when  it  crawls  or 
swims,  covers  its  shell  with  the  two  lobes  of 
its  mantle.  In  other  respects  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  Iimna3a. 

25.  The  AURICULAE  differ  from  the  pre- 
ceding by  having  large  oblique  grooves  upon 
the  columella  of  their  shell,  which  is  oval  or 
oblong  (fig.  31).  The  name  is  derived 


Fig.  30. 

PHYSA. 


Fig. 

AURICULA. 


22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Planorbis  ?     Upon  what  do  ani- 
mals  of  this  genus   feed?     Where  are  they  found  ? 

23.  How  is  the  genus  Limnse'a  distinguished  from  the  genus  Planorbis  I 
What  are  the  habits  of  this  genus  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Physa? 

25.  How  is  the  genus  Auri'cula  characterized  ?     (Auri'cula  is  formed 
from  the  Latin,  auris.  ear,  and  means  a  little  ear.) 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  TURBO  PICA. 


43 


from  the  shape  of  the  opening,  resembling  a  human  ear.  Man* 
of  these  gasteropods  are  of  considerable  size.  One  species  is 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

ORDER   OF   FECTXNXBRANCHIATA.* 

26.  This  division  of  the  class  of  Gasteropods  is  the  most 
numerous  in  genera  and  species  :  it  comprises  nearly  all  the 
mollusca,  in  which  the  shell  is  univalve  and  spirally  twisted, 

vb  b  ab  ov 


d 

Fig.  32. — ANATOMY  OF  A  PECTINIBRANCH  GASTEROPOD.  Turbo  Pica  (See  Jig.  44). 

Explanation  of  Fig.  32. — Anatomy  of  a  pectinibranch  gasteropod  (the 
Turbo  pica\  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  respiratory  cavity  : — p.  the  foot 
of  the  animal ; — o.  the  operculum  ; — t.  the  trunk  ; — ta.  the  tentacles  ; — y.  the 
eyes  ; — m.  the  mantle,  split  open  longitudinally  so  as  to  expose  the  respi- 
ratory cavity  : — •/.  the  anterior  edge  of  the  mantle,  which  in  its  natural  po- 
sition covers  the  back  of  the  animal,  and  leaves  there  an  opening  or  great 
slit,  through  which  the  water  reaches  the  branchiae  ; — b.  the  branchiae  : — vb. 
the  branchial  vein  which  goes  to  the  heart  (c) ; — ab.  the  branchial  artery  ; — 
a.  the  anus ; — i.  the  intestine  ; — e.  the  stomach  and  liver ; — ov.  the  oviduct. 
Above  the  nucha  or  nape,  we  see  the  cephalic  (nervous)  ganglion,  and  the 
salivary  glands  ; — d.  fringed  membrane,  which  below  borders  the  left  side 
of  the  opening  of  the  respiratory  cavity. 

*  Pec'tinibranchia'ta. — From  the  Latin,  peclen,  a  comb,  and  branchta, 
gills  ;  because  the  branchiae  or  gills  (fg.  32,  6)  resemble  a  comb  in  form. 

26.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  pectinibranch  ga'steropods  ?  ta 
what  parts  of  the  shell  do  we  find  the  respiratory  cavity  ? 


44      RESPIRATORY  CAVITY  OF  PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 

and  many  of  those  in  which  the  shell  is  simply  conical. 
most  remarkable  feature  of  almost  all  these  animals  is  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  branchial  apparatus;  but  this  character  is  not 
constant ;  for  in  two  genera  (cyclostoma  and  helicina),  which,  in 
other  respects,  are  too  nearly  allied  to  the  ordinary  pectinibran- 
chiata  to  be  separated  from  them,  there  are  no  branchiae,  and 
their  respiration,  which  is  aerial  as  in  pulmonea,  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  a  vascular  net-work  that  lines  the  bottom  of  the 
respiratory  cavity.  This  cavity  occupies  the  last  whorl  of  the 
shell  and  opens  externally  by  a  great  slit,  situate  betwixt  the  body 
and  the  edge  of  the  mantle;  in  most  instances  it  lodges  branchiae 
(Jig.  32,  fe),  which  are  composed  of  small  leaves  or  fringes  ar 
ranged  parallel  and  attached  to  its  superior  parietes  upon  one,  two, 
or  three  lines,  according  to  the  genus.  All  these  mollusks  have  two 
tentacles  (to)  and  two  eyes,  sometimes  borne  on  particular  pedun- 
cles ;  the  mouth  is  in  the  form  of  a  tube  or  trunk  (f),  and  encloses 
a  tongue  armed  with  small  hooks  ;  the  males  have,  on  the  right 
side  of  the  neck,  .an  appendage,  sometimes  very  thick,  which 
cannot,  in  general,  be  drawn  into  the  body  of  the  animal,  but  is 
folded  into  the  branchial  cavity  ;  the  rectum  and  the  oviduct  (ov) 
are  also  found  on  the  right  side  of  this  cavity,  and  near  them  we 
remark  a  particular  organ,  enclosing  a  very  viscid  humour,  de- 
signed to  form  a  common  envelope  around  the  eggs. 

27.  This  order  is  divided  into  three  families.  In  the  two 
first  (that  of  the  Trochoides  and  of  the  Capuloides),  there  is  no 
syphon  by  the  aid  of  which  the  animal  can  breathe  without 
leaving  its  shell  (Jig.  33),  while  in  the  third  family  (that  of  the 
Buccinoides)  there  is  a  respiratory  tube,  formed  by  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  edge  of  the  pulmonary  cavity  of  the  left  side,  which 
passes  through  a  corresponding  canal  or  notch  in  the  shell 
(fig.  34). 


Fig.  33. — TURRITELLA.  Fig.  34. — CASSIS. 


27.  How  is  the  order  of  pectinibranch  ga'steropods  divided?  How  doss 
the  family  of  Buccinoides  differ  from  the  other  two  families  the  Trochu  uies 
ivnd  Capuloides  ? 


TROCHUS. 


45 


28.  The  family  of  TROCHOIDES  are  distinguished  from  other 
pectinibranch  gasteropods  without  a  syphon,  by  the  form  of  their 
shell,  which  is  spiral,  with  an  entire  aperture,  and  by  the  exist- 
ence of  an  operculum,  or  some  organ  in  the  place  of  it.     This 
family  is  divided   into  three  tribes,  which  are  distinguished  by 
the  form  of  the  opening  of  the  shell ;  namely,  Trochus,  in  which 
this  opening,  angular  at  its  external  edge,  is  nearly  quadrangular, 
and,  as  regards  the  axis  of  the  shell,  lies    in   an  oblique  plane 
(Figs.  35  and  36);  the  tribe  Turbo,  in  which  the  mouth  of  the 
shell  is  perfectly  round  (Figs.  43,  45  and  46),  and  the  tribe  of 
Hemicyclostoma,  in  which  this  opening  is  more  or  less  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent,  as  in  the  Helices  (Figs.  26  and  27). 

29.  The  TROCHUS — so  called  from   the  general  form  of  the 
shell,  that  of  a  top;  its  spire  is  more  or  less  raised,  and  terminates 
in  a  point,  and  the  circumference  is  trenchant  or  carinate :  ani- 
mals of  this  tribe  are  mollusks  with  a  short  foot,  the  mantle  or- 
dinarily furnished  on  the  edge  with  two  or  three  pairs  of  filiform 
appendages,  the  two  eyes  being  placed  on  a  swelling  at  the  base 
of  the  tentacles,  the  mouth  armed  with   a  sort  of  spirally  rolled 
tongue,  and  the  anus  opens  on  the  right  side  of  the   respiratory 
cavity,  which  encloses  two  unequal  branchiae.     The  operculum 
is  horny,  and  marked  by  numerous  spiral  turns.     The  tribe  of 
Trochus  is  divided  into  several  little  groups,  according  to  the  ab- 
sence or  presence  of  an  umbilicus,  and  some  other  not  very  im- 
portant characters.     Figure  35  gives  a  view  of  the  base  of  the 
Trochus  niloticus,  showing  the  umbilicus  or  hole  in  the  base  of 


u MA 


Fig.  35. 


TROCHUS    NILOTICUS. 


Fig.  36 


the  columella  (w),  while  Figure  36  is  another  view  of  the  same 
shell.     The  Solarium  is  a  trochus  in  which  the  shell  is  conical  in 


28.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  family  of  Trochoides  ?  (pronounced 
tro-koi-dfs.}     Into  how  many  tribes  is  this  family  divided  ? 

29.  What   are   the   characters  of  the  tribe  of  Trochu«  ?    (pronounced 
tro-kug.') 

2U* 


40 


TROCHUS. 


form  (fig.  37),  with  a  quadrangular  aperture,  and  an  extremely 
flaring  umbilicus  (fg.  38,  u)  ;  the  anterior  edges  of  all  the  invo 


Fig.   39. — TROCHUS    AGGLUTINANS. 


u 


Fig.  37.        SOLARIUM  PERSPECTIVUM.         Fig.  38. 

lutions  or  whorls  of  the  spire  are  marked  by  a  crenulated  cord, 

that  is,  notched  on  the  edge  (fig.  38). 

30.  Among  the  TROCHI 
properly  so  called,  with  an 
umbilicated  shell,  we  will  men- 
tion the  Trochus  agglutinans, 
which  is  found  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Pacific.  It  has  the 
singular  faculty  of  glueing  to 
itself  movable  bodies  found  on 
the  ground  on  which  it  rests  ; 
sometimes  it  glues  stones  and 
sometimes  shells  or  pieces  of 
shells,  according  to  the  place 
where  it.  is  found.  From  this 
habit  of  building  out  its  habita- 
tion from  materials  not  its  own, 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  Ma- 
son (Fig.  39). 

There  are  some  without  an 
umbilicus,  very  conical,  and 
very  tall,  that  are  marked  by 
numerous  whorls  in  the  spire, 
with  crossing  striae ;  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  columella  is 
much  twisted,  and  projects  be- 
yond  the  origin  of  the  lip^  A 
specimen  of  this  variety  is  seen 
in  the  annexed  figure  of  the 
telescope  trochus  (Fig.  40) 

Fig.  40. TROCHUS    TELESCOPIUM. 


30.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Trochus  Agglutinans  ? 


TROCHUS— TURBO. 


47 


Fig.  41. — TROCHUS  CONCAVUS. 


Fig.  42. 

TROCHUS    IRIS. 


Another  variety  is  remarka- 
ble for  a  deep  excavation  at  the 
base  of  the  columella,  resem- 
bling an  umbilicus,  and  a  pro- 
jection of  the  circumference,  as 
is  seen  in  the  figure  of  the  con- 
cave trochvs  (fg.  41),  which 
inhabits  the  Indian  Seas,  and  is 
considered  rare. 

There  are 
other  specijes, 
without  an  umbi- 
licus, conical  with 
a  very  oblique 

base;  the  aperture  large,  slightly  angular:  the 
columella  twisted,  and  forming  a  kind  of  tooth  at 
its  termination.  Such  is  the  rainbow  trochua 
(fg.  42),  the  nacre  of  which  is  a  beautiful  golden 
green,  with  very  brilliant  reflections  of  red. 

31.  The  tribe  of  TURBO  comprises  all  the  pecti- 
nibranch  gasteropods  which  have  a  completely  and 
regularly  turbinated  shell,  terminated  by  an  entirely  round  aper- 
ture In  it  we  range  the  turbo 
properly  so  called,  delphinula,  turri- 
rella,  scalaria,  cyclostoma,  valvata, 
&c.  (fg.  43). 

32.  The  TURBOS  properly  so 
called  are  recognised  by  their  round 
or  oval  thick  shell,  in  which  the  ap- 
erture is  completed  within  by  the 
whorl  of  the  spire  next  to  the  last. 
Tbese  mollusks  have  two  long  ten- 
tacles, which, 
at  their  base, 
externally, 

support  the  pedunculated  eyes;  on  the 
sides  of  the  foot  we  remark  membranous 
wings,  sometimes  simple, sometimes  fringed 
or  furnished  with  one  or  two  filaments ; 
and  their  operculum  is  sometimes  horny,  at 
others  calcareous,  or  extremely  thick.— 
Among  the  varieties  of  this  genus  is  the 
Turbo  Pica  (fg.  44),  which  inhabits  the 

31.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Turbo  ?  (Turbo  is  n  Latin 
word,  meaning  a  whirling  or  twisting.) 
32    What  are  the  characters  of  the  Turbo  properly  so  called? 


Fig.  43. — TURBO. 


Fig.  44. — TURBO  PICA. 


48 


SCALARIA.— CYCLOSTOMA.— VALVATA. 


equatorial  regions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  a  common, 
heavy  shell ;  it  has  a  horny  operculum,  and  is  remarkable  for  a 
tooth  situate  at  the  orifice  of  the  umbilicus. 

33.  The  DELPHINULA  has  a  thick  shell  like  the  last,  but  rolled 
almost  in  the  same  plane,  and  the  aperture  is   entirely  formed 
by  the  last  whorl  of  the  spire  (fig.  45): 

the  most  common  species  is  remarkable 
for  its  twisted  and  branching  spines. 

34.  The  TURRITELLA  and  Scalaria 
have  a  very  elongated  spire  :  in  the  first 
(fig.  33,  page  44),  the  mouth  or  aper- 
ture of  the  shell  is  formed   as  in  the 
Turbo,  properly  so  called,  and  in  the  last, 

it  is  similar  to  that 
of  the   Delphinula. 

Precious  Scalaria  (fig.  46)  has  the  volu- 
tions connected  by  longitudinal  ribs. 

35.  The  CYCLOSTOMA,  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  branchiae,  and 
by  their  aerial  respiration,  also  have  a  shell 
with  a  round  mouth, 
closed  by  a  thin  circu- 
lar operculum  (fig.  47, 
o) ;  it  is  in  form  of  an 
oval  spire,  and  finely 


Fig.  45. DELPHINULA 

The  Wentletrap    or 


Fig.  46.— SCALARIA. 


striated  transversely. 
These  animals  live  in 
woods,  under  moss  and 
stones. 


Fig.  47. 

CYCLOSTOMA. 


36.  Finally,  the  fresh- water  mollusks,  named  VALVATA, — in 
which  the  shell  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  Planorbis,  but 
has   a    circular   aperture,    furnished   with    an 
operculum, — also  take  their  place  here.    One 
species,    which    inhabits    stagnant    waters   in 
France,   has   been  called   the  feather  bearer, 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  branchia,  which 
is  in  form  of  a  feather,  is  protruded  and  floats 
Fig  48  on  lne  sur^ace  °f  tne  water  when  the  animal 

VALVATA.  wishes  to  breathe. 


33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Delphinu'la  ? 

34.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Turrite'lla  and  Scala'ria  ? 

35.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cyclo'stomae  ?  (Cyclostoma  :  from  the 
Greek,  kuklos,  round,  and  stoma,  "mouth, — round-mouth.} 

36.  What  animals  belong  to  the  genus  Valva'ta?  (Valvata,  Latin,  formed 
from  valv(Br  folding  doors). 


PALUDINA.— LITTORINA.—MONODON. 


49 


37.  The  tribe  of  HEMI'CYCLO'STOMA  is  composed  of  pectini- 
branch  gasteropods,  which  resemble  snails  in  the  form  of  their 
shell,  of  which  the  whorl  next  to  the  last  presents  a  sunken  arch, 
which  gives  its  aperture  more  or  less  resemblance  to  a  crescent. 
They  form   many  genera,  among  which  we  will    mention  the 
Palvdina,  Littorina,  Monodonta,  Janthina,  and  Nerita. 

38.  The  PALUDINJE  were,  for  a  long  time,  confounded  with 
the  cyclostomse,  but  the  aperture  of  their  shell   is  without  the 
rolled  lip,  and  they  are  provided  with  branchiae  for  breathing  in 

water  ;  they  show  the  first  vestiges  of  the 
syphon  which  always  exists  in  the  follow- 
ing family ;  we  observe  on  each  side  of 
the  body  a  sort  of  membranous  wing,  and 
on  the  right  side  this  prolongation  curves 
into  a  small  canal,  through  which  water 
is  introduced  into  the  branchial  cavity. 
Many  species  are  found  in  fresh  waters 
in  the  United  States.  A  common  species, 
the  Palvdina  vivi'para,  so  called  because 
its  young  are  born  alive,  is  marked  by 

purplish  longitudinal  bands,  and  the  shell  is  greenish ;  it  abounds 

in  the  standing  waters  of  France. 

39.  The  LITTORINJE  do  not  differ  much  from  the  Paludinae, 
except   that   they    have   a    thicker   shell, 

and  inhabit  the  sea.  The  Vigneau,  or 
Turbo  littoreus,  the  shell  of  which  is 
.round,  of  a  brown  colour,  streaked  with 
black,  belongs  to  this  genus  ;  it  abounds 
on  the  coast  of  France,  where  it  is  eaten 
by  the  natives. 

40.  The  MONODONS   are   distinguished 
from  the  littorinse  by  the  presence  of  a 
blunt,  slightly  projecting  tooth  at  the  base 
of  the  columella.     The  animal  generally 
bears  on  each  side  three  or  four  filaments, 
as  long  as  the  tentacles,  and  has  the  eyes 

supported  on  peculiar  pedicles.  A  small  species,  the  Trochus 
tesselatvs,  with  a  brown  shell,  spotted  whitish,  abounds  on  the 
coasts  of  France. 


Fig.  49. — PALUDINA. 


Fig.  50. 

LITTORINA   VIGNEAU. 


37.  What  is  the  characteristic  of  the  Hemi'cyclo'stoma  ? 

38.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Paludi'na  ?  (Paludina,  formed 
from  the  Latin  palus,  a  marsh.) 

39.  What  are   the  characters  of  the  genus  Littorina  ? 

40.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Monodon  ? 

5 


5G 


PHASIANELLA.— AMPULLARIA.— MELANIA. 


Fig.  51. 

PHASIANELLA    PICTA 


41.  The  PHASIANELLA  (Jig.  51)  have  an 
oblong  or  pointed  shell  ;  the  aperture  is  higher 
than  it  is  wide,  and  furnished  with  a  strong 
operculurn  ;  the  base  of  the  columella  is  flatten- 
ed, but  there  is  no  umbilicus.  These  animals 
inhabit  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  their  shells  are 
much  sought  after  by  collectors,  on  account  of 
the  beauty  of 
their  colours. 

42.  The 
shell  of  the 
AMPULLARIA 
(Jig.  52)  is 
round,  ventri- 
cose,  with  a 

short  spire,  as   in    most   of  the 

Helices;  the  aperture  is  higher 

than  it  is  wide,  and  provided  with 

an  operculum ;  the  columella  is 

umbilicated.      The    Ampullariae 

inhabit   the   fresh    or    brackish 

waters  of  hot  countries.     Many 

species  are  found  in  the  United  p^  53.. 

States. 

43.  The  shell  of  the  MELANIA  (fig.  53) 
has  the  aperture   higher  than  wide,  and  it 
enlarges   opposite   to   the  spire ;   the  colu- 
mella has  neither  plica?  (folds)  nor  umbili- 
cus ;  the  length  of  the  spire  is  very  various. 
The  animal  has  long  tentacles,  the  eyes  be- 
ing at  about  one-third  of  their  length,  on 
the  external   side.      The   MelaniaB    inhabit 
fresh-water  rivers ;  a  number  of  species  is 
met  with  in  the  United  States. 

44.  The  JANTHIN^:  (fig'  54)   resemble 

Fig.    53.-11ELANIA.          gnails  jn   the  general   f()rm   of   their  shellj   but 

differ  considerably  from  the  different  mollusks  we  have  described 


-AMPULLARIA. 


41.  How  is  the  genus  Phasiane'lla  characterized  ?  (Phasianella,  from 
(he  Greek,  Phasianos,  a  pheasant,  because  this  shell  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  the  pheasant  in  its  colours.) 

4*2.  How  is  the  genus  Ampulla'ria  recognised  ? 

43.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Mela'nia?     (Melania,  from  the 
Greek,  mdas,  black.) 

44.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Janthi'na?  (Janthina,  fromtho 
1f>f k  ianthon,  violet  colour.) 


JANTHINA.— NERITA. 


-  54.  -JANTHINA. 


in  the  form  of  the  animal.     It  has  no  oper- 

culum,  but  carries  on  its  foot  a  substantial 

vesicular  organ,  which  resembles  froth  bub- 

bles, which  hinders  it  from  crawling,  but  en- 

ables it  to  float  on   the  surface  of  the  water. 

Its  head  is  in  the  form  of  a  trunk,  and  has  a 

forked  tentacle  on  each  side.     The  common 

species  —  Janthinafragilis  —  with  a  very  thin  violet-coloured  shell, 

is  very  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  seas  of  all  warm 

regions.     Great  numbers  of  them  are  frequently  met  with  in  per- 

fectly calm  weather  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.     When 

the  animal  is  touched,  it  ejects  a  deep  violet-coloured  liquor,  which 

dyes  the  water  all  round  it.     The  vesicular  or  froth-like  buoy  ia 

about  three  times  the  size  of  the  animal  ;  it  is  in  the  form  of  a 

cone,  projecting  from  one  side. 

45.  The  NERITA  are  distinguished  by 
the  columella  being  a  straight  line,  which 
makes  the  aperture  of  the  shell  either 
semi-circular  or  semi-elliptical.  They 
are  divided  into  Natica,  in  which  the  shell 
is  umbilicate  (fig.  20,  page  34)  and  the 
operculum  horny  ;  into  Nerita,  properly 
so  called,  in  which  the  shell  is  not  umbili- 
cate, thick  (Jig.  55),  and  the  operculum 
stony,  and  into  Neritina,  in  which  the 
shell  is  also  without  an  umbilicus,  very 


Fig.  55. 

NERITA   PELORONTA. 

Bleeding  Tooth. 


thint  and  the  operculum  is  horny.     The  last  live  in  fresh  waters. 


45. 


\s  *h*  %  enus  Neri'ta  distinguished  ? 


52  FAMILY  OF  BUCCINOIDES. 


LESSON  IV. 

FAMILY  OF  BUCCINOIDES. — Buccinum — Buccinum  properly  so 

called  —  Harpa  — Purpvra  — Cassis — Cerithium — Murex — 

Strombus — Valuta — Ovitla — Cyprcea — Convs. 
FAMILY    OF    PECTINIBRANCHIATA    CAPULOIDA.  —  Pileopsis  — 

Hypponyx —  Crepidula — rCalyptraa  —  Siphonaria  —  Siga- 

retus. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  TUBULIBRANCHIATA. 
ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  SCUTIBRANCHIATA. — Haliotis — Fis- 

surella — Emarginula . 
ORDER     OF     GASTEROPODA     CYCLOBRANCHIATA. —  Patella — 

Chiton. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  INFEROBRANCHIATA. 
ORDER    OF     GASTEROPODA    TECTIBRANCHIATA. — Pleurobran- 

chus — Aplysia — Dolabella — Bullea — Bvlla. 
ORDER     OF     GASTEROPODA     NUDIBRANCHIATA.  —  Eolidia  — 

Glaucus. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  HETEROPODA. — Carinaria. 
CLASS  OF  MOLLUSCA  PTEROPODA.  —  Clio  borealis. 

1.  In  the  FAMILY  OF  BUCCINOIDES,  the  shell  is  spiral,  and  in 
its  aperture,  near  the  extremity  of  the  columella,  there  is  a  canal 
or  notch,  serving  for  the  passage  of  the  syphon  or  respiratory 
tube  (fg.  56),  which  is  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  mantle,  ana 
destined  to  afford  the  animal   the  power  of  breathing,  without 
going  out  of  its  shell.     This  family  is  divided  into  three  tribes, 
namely  :  Buccinum,  Murex,  and  Angiostoma. 

2.  The  TRIBE  OF  BUCCINUM  comprises  all  the  Buccinoides  in 

which  the  shell  is  with- 
out a  plica  (fold)  in  its 
columella,  but  is  fur- 
nished with  a  notch  or 
short  canal  inflected 
towards  the  left,  and  its 
aperture  is  very  large. 
The  foot  of  these  mol- 
lusks  is  generally  of 
Fig.  56.-VOLUTA.  moderate  length,  and 

rounded  in  front  (jigs.  33  and  34.)     The  mantle  is  unprovided 
with  fringe,  and  is  prolonged  anteriorly  into  a  long  canal,  which 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  shell  in  the  family  of  Buccinoides  J 
Into  how  many  tribes  is  this  family  divided  ? 

2.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Buc'cinum  characterized  ?     (Buccinum,  Latin,  a 
t-umpet.) 


BUCCINUM.— NASSA.— HARPA, 


53 


is  always  uncovered.     The  mouth  is  armed  with  a  trunk,  and 
there  is  generally  a  small  horny  operculum. 

3.  The  BUCCINUM  PROPERLY  so  CALLED 
(Jig.  57),  has  an  oval,  elongated  shell,  the 
aperture  of  which  is  oval,  notched,  and  with- 
out a  canal.  The  operculum  is  complete,  and 
these  animals  have  no  veil  on  the  head  like 
the  Cerita.  A  great  many  species  are  known. 
Lamarck  describes  fifty-eight  species. 

4.   We    give    the   name    of 

NASSA   to  mollusks  that   differ 

very  little  from  the  preceding, 

but  in  which  the  columella  of 

the    shell,    in    place   of    being  Fig.  57. 

convex  and  naked,  is  covered  by     BUCCINUM  UNDATUM. 

a  plate  of  greater  or  less  thickness  (Jig.  58).  Dolium 

also  belongs  to  this  tribe,  and  is 

remarkable  for  the  length  of  its 

trunk  and  the  size  of  its  foot. 

It  is  without  operculum,  and 

the  shell  is  recognised  by  being 
almost  globose,  very  ventricose  and  fur- 
nished with  projecting  ribs,  which  follow 
the  direction  of  the  whorls  of  the  spire, 
and  make  the  margin  of  the  aperture  un- 
dulated (Jig.  59).  A  very  large  species  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean.  Fig.  59. DOLIUM 

d  a  GALEA. 

5.  The  HARPS — Harpa — 
have    a     more    oval    shell, 
furnished  with  projecting  ribs 
parallel  with  the  margin  of 
the  aperture,  and  differ  from 
the  preceding  in  the  form  of 
their  foot  (Jig.  60). 

6.  The   PURPURA  is   fur- 
nished   with    an   operculum, 

Fig.  60.— HARPA.  like  the  Buccinum  properly  so 


Fig.  58. 

NASSA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  60.— Harp :— a.  the  shell ;— b.  the  foot  of  the  animal ; 
— c.  the  tentacles ; — d.  the  syphon. 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Buccinum  properly  so  called  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Nassa?  (Nassa,  Latin,  a  net*. 
What  are  the  characters  of  Do'lium  ?  (Dolium,  Latin,  tub,  a  tun). 

5.  How  is  the  Harp  characterized  ? 

6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Pur'pura?   (Purpura,  Latin 
purple.) 

fi*  2V 


C  A  SSIS.— TEREBRA.— CERITHIUM. 


called,  which  it  very  much  resembles.  The  shell  is  ovate,  thick, 
most  frequently  tuberculated,  and  characterized  by  its  flattened 
columella,  which  is  trenchant  towards  the  end  opposite  to  the 
spire,  and  forming,  at  that  point  with  the  external  margin  of  the 
aperture,  an  unprojecting  canal. 


Fig.  61. 


CASSIS. 


Fig.  62. 


7.  The  HELMET  — CASSIS  (fgs.  34,  61,  62)  — also  very 
much  resembles  the  ordinary  Buccinum ;  but  their  shell,  which 
is  ovate,  with  a  short,  slightfy  projecting  spire,  is  furnished  with 
a  transversely  wrinkled  plate,  covering  the 
columella,  like  the  Nassa.  The  aperture, 
sometimes  oblong,  sometimes  straight,  is 
also  wrinkled  externally,  and  its  notch  termi- 
nates in  a  little  short  canal  which  is  curved 
backwards. 

6.  The  TEREBRA  differs  still  less  from  the 
Buccinum  properly  so  called  :  it  is  distin- 
guished from  it  t>nly  by  the  elongation  of  its 
spire. 

9.  The  CERITHIUM  (fg.  63),  the  shell  of 
which  is  turreted,  like  that  of  the  Terebra,  but 
furnished  with  a  short  canal  curved  to  the  left 
or  backwards,  also  differs  from  other  Buccina 
by  having  a  veil  above  the  head  :  this  animal 
has  but  a  single  branchia.  Some  of  the  mol- 
lusks  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  sea,  and  others 
Fie  63.  fresn  water<  A  great  many  living  species  are 

ALUCO.        known ;  but  they  were  formerly  more  abun- 


7.  What  are  the   characters  of  the  genus  Cassis?    (Cassis,  Latin,  a 
helmet.) 

8.  How  is  Terebra  distinguished  from  Buc'cinum  ?    (Buccinum,   Latin, 
&  trumpet,  a  shell-fish.) 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  Cerithium  ? 


MUREX.— FUSUS.— STROMBUS. 


55 


dant  than  in  our  day  ;  for,  in  certain  formations,  such  as  the 
calcareous*  tertiary  of  the  environs  of  Paris,  an  immense  number 
is  found  in  the  fossil  state. 

10.  In  the   TRIBE    OF  MUREX,  the  aperture  of  the  shell  is 
always    prolonged    into   a   canal,    either    straight    or    inflected 
(fits'    64).      The    animals    themselves    very    closely    resemble 
those  of  the   tribe  of  Buccinum ;  they  have  a  trunk,   no  veiJ 
on    the    head,    the    right   edge   of 

the  mantle  furnished  with  lobes  or 
filaments,  and  a  horny  operculum. 
They  are  all  carnivorous  and  inhabit 
the  sea.  They  are  subdivided,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  of  the  shell, 
into  Murex  properly  so  called, 
Fusus,  Strombus,  &c. 

11.  The    Mu rices    properly    so 
called  are  distinguished  by  their  shell, 
the  canal  of  which  is  projecting  and 
straight,  and  the  whorls  are  furnish- 
ed  with    transverse   elevations,   in 
form  of  varices   or   ridges,  which 
often  present  spines,  or  ramified  and 
slashed  plates,  or  lamella?. 

12.  The    Fusus     has    a    canal 
formed  like   the  common    Murex  ; 
but  the  shell  is  without  varices,  that 
is,  longitudinal  ribs. 

Fig.  64. — MUREX. 

13.  The  STROMBUS  has  a  shell  in  which  the 
canal  is  straight  or  curved  to  the  right,  and  its 
external  edge  expands  with  age,  and  this  canal 
presents  a  sinus  (hollow)  behind,  in  which 
the  head  lodges,  when  the  animal  extends 
itself.  In  the  STROMBUS  PROPERLY  so 
CALLED,  the  sort  of  wing  formed  by  this  prolon- 
gation of  the  margin  of  the  shell  is  entire  ( jfor. 
65),  while,  in  the  PTEROCERA,  it  is  divided,  in 
the  adult,  into  long  and  slender  digitations. 


Fig.  65. 

STROMBUS. 


10.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Mu'rex  characterised  ?  (Murex,  Latin,  a  shellfish.) 

11.  How  are  Mu'rices  properly  so  called  distinguished  ? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  Fusus  ?  (Fusus,  Latin,  a  spindle.) 

13.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Strom'bus?    (Strombui 
Latin,  name  of  a  shellfish.) 


VOLUTA.— OLIVA.— OVULA. 


All  have  the  aperture  of  the  shell  very  narrow  (fg. 

60),  a  disposition  approaching  to  the  characteristic  of  • 

the  following  tribe. 

14.  In  the  TRIBE  OF  ANGIOSTOMA,  the  aperture 

is  generally  so  narrow  that,  to  enter  it,  the  foot  of  the 

animal  is  obliged  to  be  doubled. 

In  some,  designated  under  the  com- 
mon name  of  VOLUTES — Valuta — the 
aperture,  which  is  of  various  forms,  is 
terminated  by  a  notch  without  a  canal, 
and  the  columella  is  marked  by  oblique, 
projecting  plicae  (folds),  (fg.  67) :  they  are  sub- 
divided into  VOLUTES  PROPER  (fg-  56, page  52), 
in  which  the  aperture  is  wide,  and  the  columella 
is  marked  by  some  large  plicae,  and  the  last 
whorl  of  the  spire  is  sometimes  ventricose,  some- 
times conical ;  in  the  MITRA  the  spire  is  in 
general  pointed  and  elongated,  and  in  OLIVA,  so 
called  from  the  oblong  or  ellipsoid  form  of  the 
shell,  the  aperture  is  long,  narrow,  and  notched 
opposite  to  the  spire,  and  the  columella  is  marked 
by  numerous  plicae  (fg>  67). 

16.  In  others    the  shell  is   oval,  the   spire  is 
concealed,  and  the  aperture,  which  is  long  and 
narrow,  has  no  plicae  on  the  side  of  the  columella, 
a  notch  or  canal  at  its  two  extremities ;  these  are 


Fig.  67. 

OLIVA. 


but  presents 


the  OVUL^  (fg.  68). 


Fig.  68. — OVULA  VOLVA. 

17.  In  others  again,  the  CYPR^^E  (PORCELANA),  the  shell, 
which  is  protuberant  in  the  middle,  and  almost  as  much  con- 

14.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  tribe  of  Angio'stoma  ?    (Angiosloma, 
Greek,  a^geion,  a  vessel,  and  stoma,  mouth.) 

15.  What   a/e  the  characters  of  Volu'ta  ?     (Voluta,  Latin,  a  wreath.) 
What  is  the  character  of  Oli'va  ?    (Oliva,  Latin,  an  olive.) 

It,.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  O'vula  ?  (Ovula,  from  the 
Latin,  ouum,  an  egg.) 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Cyprae'a  ?  (Cyprsea,  Latin, 
a  cowry. 


CYPRJEA.— CONUS. 


57 


tracted  at  the  two  extremities,  has  a  very  narrow  aperture,  trans- 
versely wrinkled  on  both  sides;  when  the  animal  expands  it- 
self, the  mantle  extends  over  the  shell  and  envelopes  it  entirely 

(jig.  69),  which,  in  the 
progress  of  time,  pro- 
duces considerable  mo- 
dification in  the  colours 
of  the  latter ;  for,  at  a 
certain  period,  it  depo- 
sits new  layers  of  calca- 
reous matter,  not  only 
Fig.  -69.— CYPR^EA.  around  the  aperture,  but 

also  upon  the  whole  external  surface  of  this  solid  envelope. 

18.  Also  to  this   tribe  of  mollusks    belongs  the 
genus  CONUS  (jig.  70),  which  differs  from   all  the 
preceding  in    the  conical  form  of  the  shell,  which 
gives  the  genus  its  name;  a  slightly,  or  not  at  all 
projecting  spire,  forms  the  base  of  this  cone,  and  the 
aperture,  which  is  nearly  straight,  extends  from  one 
end  of  the  shell  to  the  other. 

19.  A  great  number  of  the  shells,  the  principal 
characters  of  which  we  have  briefly  noted,  are  re- 
markable for  the  elegance  of  their  form   and   the 
beauty  of  their  colours ;  the  Cones,  the   porcelain 
shells  (Cypraea),  the  Volutes,  and  the  Olives  especial- 
ly, are  much  admired  for  the  brilliance  of  their  mark-       CONUS. 
ings.     Many  other  mollusks  of  the  family  of  Buccinoides  are  also 
worthy  of  attention  on  account  of  the  viscid  liquid,  secreted  by 
the  gland  placed,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  the  snails,  betwixt 
the  heart  and  rectum.     And  in  a  considerable  number  of  these 
animals,  this  humour  has  the  property  of  changing  colour  when 
exposed   to  the  action  of  air  and  light,  and   thus  passes  from 
greenish  yellow  to  purple;  spread  upon  stuffs,  it  imparts  to  them 
this  rich  shade,  and  appears  to  be  the  material  employed  by  the 
ancients  for  producing  their  beautiful  purple  dyes.     Pliny  relates 
that  on  the  shores  of  Tyre,  and   many  other  points  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  there  are  found  two  genera  of  shells, 
called  Buccinum  and  Pvrpura^  both  of  which  furnished  d}e  for 
the  colours  termed  purple  and  conchilian.     The  first  of  these 
mollusks  appears  to  be  the  Buccinum  lapillus,  and   the  second 
(he  Murex  brandaris  (fig.  64) ;  but  the  quantity  of  colouring 


Fig.  70. 


1  8.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Co'nu?  ?      (Conus,  Latin,  a 


19.  What  animals  are  supposed  to  yield  the  purple  dye  which  was  cel«- 
brated  among  the  ancients  ? 

2V# 


CAPULUS.— HIPPONYX.— CREPIDULA. 


matter  these  animals  yield  is  so  small,  it  is  difficult  to  explain 
how  they  could  furnish  so  active  a  trade;  and  it  must  have  been 
that  the  ancients  used  for  the  same  purposes  the  purple  liquid 
secreted  by  larger  and  more  common  mollusks,  such  as  the 
aplysia,  which  we  have  yet  to  mention. 

20.  The  FAMILY  OF  PECTINIBRANCH  CAPULOIDES  is  recog- 
nised by  the  shell  being  widely  open,  slightly  turbinated,  and 
without  either  notch,  syphon,  or  operculum.  The  conformation 
of  the  animal  differs  but  little  from  that  of  other  mollusks  of  the 
same  order  ;  there  is  only  a  single  branchia,  often  with  very  long 
filaments,  attached  transversely  to  the  arch  of  the  respiratory 
cavity. 

In  this  division  are  arranged  the  genera  of  Pileopsis,  Hippo- 
nyx,  Crepidula,  Calyptraa,  Sigaretus,  fyc. 

21.  Animals  of  the  genus  Pileopsis^  or  Capulus 
(fig.  71),  have  their  branchiae  on  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  respiratory  cavity ;  the  shell  is  conical,  and 
presents  at  its  summit  the  commencement  of  a  spire; 
their  neck  is  covered  by  a  membranous  plaited  veil, 
and  they  have  two  conical  tentacles,  and  a  tolerably 
long  trunk  or  proboscis.     They  inhabit   the  sea- 
shores of  warm  countries. 

22.  The     genus     of 
Hipponyx  (fig.  72)  con- 
sists     of     fossil     shells, 

which  closely  resemble  the  preceding, 

but  are  very  remarkable  for  a  support 

formed    by    calcareous    layers,    upon 

which   they  rest,  and  which    seem  to 

have  been  secreted  by  the  foot  of  the  72._HippoNvx. 

animal. 

23.  The  CrepidulcB  have  an  oval 
shell,  the  whole  base  of  which  is 
half  closed  by  a  horizontal  plate, 
which  supports  the  abdominal  sac 
above  it,  and  is  covered  beneath  by 
the  foot  (fig.  73). 

Fig.   73. CREPIDULA. 

20.  How    is   the   family   of   Pectinibranoh    Capuloi'des    distinguished  t 
(Capuloides,  from  the  Latin,  capulus,  a  hilt  or  handle,  and  the  Greek,  eidos, 
resemblance.) 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ca'pulus?     (Capulus.  Latin,  a 
hilt.) 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Hippony'x?     (Hipponyx,  from 
thr-  Greek,  ippos,  a  horse,  and  onux,  nail ;  horse  nail,  or  hoof.) 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Crepi'dula  ?    (Crepidula.  Latin, 
a  slipper.) 


CALYPTILE.— SIPHONARIA.— SIGARETUS. 


59 


Fig.  74. 

CALVPTR.EA. 


21.  The  Calyptrcetz  have  in  the  interior  of  the 
shell,  in  form  of  a  hollow  cone,  a  small  plate  pro- 
jecting downwards,  which  seems  to  be  the  com- 
mencement of  a  columella,  and  is  embraced  in  a 
fold  of  the  abdominal  sac  ;  their  branchiae  are 
composed  of  long  slender  filaments  like  hairs. — 
In  some  of  them  the  plate  or  lamina  adheres  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cone,  being  itself  bent  into  a 
portion  of  a  cone  or  of  a  tube,  and  descending 
vertically. 

25.  The  Siphonaria  deserve  notice,  because 
they  show  how  much  the  organization  of  mollusks  may  vary  with- 
out any  very  striking  difference  in  the  form  of  their  shell.  Until 
"recently  these  animals  have  been  ranged  with  the  patellae,  to  be 
described  in  the  sequel,  which  they  resemble  in  their  shell,  but 
differ  from  them  very  much  in  the  structure  of  their  most  im- 
portant organs ;  their  branchia  is  composed  of  a  few  leaflets 
transversely  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a  respiratory  cavity, 
which  is  on  the  back,  and  communicat- 
ing externally  by  a  lateral  hole  in  the 
mantle;  they  do  not  appear  to  possess 
tentacles,  but  have  a  narrow  veil  on  the 
head. 

26.  The  genus  Sigaretits  (fg.  75) 
has  a  flattened  shell,  with  a  slight  spire, 
and    a  very   large   aperture,   which   is 
Fig.  75.— SIGARETUS.        concealed  in  the  mantle. 


ORDER   OF  GASTEROPODA  TTJBULIBHANCHIATA. 

27.  Tubulibranch  gasteropods  are  very  analogous  to  the 
peclinibranch  gasteropods,  but  are  distinguished  from  them  by 
very  important  differences  in  the  organization  of  some  of  their 
organs,  and  in  the  structure  of  their  shell,  which  is  fixed  to  sub- 
marine bodies,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  more  or  less  irregular  tube, 
the  commencement  of  which  only  is  spiral.  It  is  divided  into  the 
genera  Vermetus,  Magilus,  and  Siliquaria. 


24.  What  are   the   characters  of  the  genus   Calyptrae'a?     (Calyptrse'a, 
from  the  Greek,  kaluptra,  a  hood.) 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Siphona'ria  ? 

26.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Sigare'tus  ? 

27.  How    are  the   tubu'libranch   distinguished  from    the  pecti'nibranch 
gasteropods?     (Tubu'libranch,  from  the  Latin,  tubulu»  a  litlle  tube,  and 
oranchia,  gills). 


60 


HALIOTIS.— FISSURELLA. 


ORDER  OF   GASTEROPODA   SCTJTIBHANCHIATA. 

28.  In  the  general  form  of  their  body  and   the  position  of 
their    branchiae,    the    scutibranch    resemble    the    pectinibranch 
gasteropods  ;  but  they  differ  from  the  latter  in  their  anatomical 
and  physiological  characters.     Their  shell  is  very  open,  slightly 
or  not  at  all  turbinated,  and,  like  a  shield,  it  covers  the  branchiee 
or  even  the  whole  body.     A  peculiarity  of  their  internal  organi- 
zation approximates  them  to  the  acephalous  mollusks;  their  heart 
is  traversed  by  the  rectum  and  receives  the  blood  by  two  auricles. 
They   are  not    numerous,  and  are   divided  into  Haliotis,  Fis- 
surella,  c^c. 

29.  The  Haliotides  (fg.  76)  have  a  slightly  turbinated  shell, 
with  a  spire  so  small  that  it  is  only  seen  from  the  inside:  it  is 
flattened    and    the   aperture  is  very  large.     In   the  Haliotides 
properly  so  called,  there  is  along  the  columella  a  series  of  holes, 

through  which  the  water  reaches 
a  slit  on  the  right  side  of  the 
mantle,  and  penetrates  to  the 
branchial  cavity  ;  the  filiform  ap- 
pendages of  the  edgeof  the  mantle 
can  be  protruded  through  these 
holes,  and  all  around  the  foot  there 

Fig.  76.-HALIOTIS. 


fringes  and  furnished  with  long  filaments.  On  the  outside  of  the 
tentacles  we  find  two  cylindrical  pedicles,  bearing  the  eyes;  and 
the  mouth  is  armed  with  a  trunk  or  proboscis.  The  external 
surface  of  the  shells  of  these  mollusks  are  not  remarkable  ;  but 
internally  they  are  covered  by  a  layer  of  nacre,  of  the  richest  and 
most  beautifully  iridescent  colours.  They  are  found  in  great  num- 
bers on  the  rocky  shores  of  California.  o 

30.  The  Fissurella,  • 

(fS-     77)    are    recog- 
nised   by  their   conical 
shell    placed    upon    the  m 
middle  of  the  back,  and  p 
pierced    at    its    summit 
by     a     small    opening, 


which    serves    to 


gve 


Fig.  77.—  FISSURELLA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  77.  —  p.  the  foot  of  the  animal  ;—  m.  the  mantle  ;  —  o. 
the  opening  at  the  apex  of  the  shell,  and  the  anus. 

28.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  scuti'branch  ga'steropods  ?     (Scuti. 
branch,  from  the  Latin,  scutum,  a  shield,  and  bronchia,  gills.) 

29.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Halio'tides  ?     (Haliotides,  from  the 
Greek,  tilf,  the  sea,  and  ous,  ear  ;  sea-ear,  or  haliotis,  and  eidos,  resemblauca.) 

30.  How  is  the   genus  Fissure'lla  recognised  ?    (Fissurella,  Latii,  JV*. 
ft/ra,  a  slit.) 


EMARGINULA.— PATELLA. 


Cl 


passage  to  the  air  necessary  for  respiration,  and  also  for  the  ex- 
pulsion  of  the  excrements. 

31.  We  give  the  name  of  Emarginula  to  mollusks  very  much 
like  the  Fissurellae,  but  their  shell,  in  place  of  being  open  at  the 
top,  presents  a  slit  or  notch  in  front,  communicating  with  the 
branchial  cavity. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  CYCLOBRANCKIATA. 

32.  The  cyclobranch  gasteropods  closely  approximate  the  pre- 
ceding, either  in  their  general  form,  or  in  the  disposition  of  their 
internal  organs ;  but  they  are  distinguished   by  their  branchias 
being  fixed  around  the  edges  of  the  mantle  (Jig-  78). 

38.  Some,  the  Patella 
(fg.  78),  for  example,  are 
provided  with  a  broad-based, 
conical  shell,  which  covers 
the  whole  body  ;  they  very 
much  resemble  the  Fissurel- 
lae and  Emarginulse,  but  the  ^ 
shell  is  not  perforated  at  the 

b- 


t 


apex,  nor  is  there  a  notch  in 
front  as  in  the  latter.  The 
head  is  furnished  with  two 
pointed  tentacles,  having  the 
eyes  at  their  base,  and  a 
stout  trunk ;  the  anus  is 
situate  to  the  right,  and  a 
little  above  the  head,  and  the 
branchiae  are  composed  of 


Fig.  78. PATELLA. 


leaflets  or  fringes,  arranged  in  a  row  around  the  body,  under  the 
edges  of  the  mantle.  Patellae  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world  ;  they  are  found  on  rocks  to  which  they  adhere,  and  lie 
completely  concealed  beneath  their  shell,  even  after  they  are  left 
by  the  ebbing  sea. 


Explanation  of  Fi?.  78. — The  animal  of  the  patella  seen  from  below; — e 
the  edge  of  the  shell ;— p.  the  foot ; — m.  the  mantle ;— 6.  the  branchiae  ; — t. 
the  head. 


31.  How  does  the  genus  Emargi'nula  differ  from  Fissure'lla?     (Emargi. 
nula,  from    the  Latin,  e,  from,  and   margo,  marginis,  the   margin — from 
the  margin — notched.) 

32.  How  are    cy'clobranch   ga'steropods   distinguished  ?     (Cyclobranch, 
from  the  Greek,  kiiklos,  a  wheel,  and  bragchia,  gills.) 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Patella?     (Patella,    Latin, 
knee-pan 

6 


CHITON. 


34.  Other  cyclobranch  gastero- 
pods, called  Chiton  (fig.  79),  differ 
from  all  mollusks,  in  the  nature  of 
their  shell,  which,  instead  of  a  tur- 
binated  or  shield-like  piece,  is  com- 
posed of  a  row  of  testaceous  and 
symmetrical  scales,  generally  eight 
in  number,  let  into  the  mantle,  and 
occupying  the  middle  line  of  the 
back.  The  edges  of  this  mantle, 
thus  protected,  are  also  very 
leathery,  and  often  furnished  with 
little  scales,  spines,  or  hairs.  A 
membranous  veil  placed  over  the 
mouth,  takes  the  place  of  tentacles ; 
the  branchiae  are  composed  of 
Fig.  79.— CHITON.  lamellar  pyramids,  arranged  on  each 

side,  beneath  the  edge  of  the  mantle  ;  the  anus  is  at  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  body.  Chitons  most  abound  on  the  shores  of 
tropical  seas. 

ORDER   OF  GASTEROPODA  XNFEROBRANCHIATA. 

35.  The  order  of  Inferobranch  gasteropods  is  composed  of  a 
very  small  number  of  naked  moliusks,  characterized  by  their 
branchiae,  consisting  of  a  long  series  of  leaflets,  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  between  the  foot,  and  the  advanced  edge  of  the 
mantle.     Like  the  preceding,  they  are  marine,  and  differ  from 
them,  not  only  in  the  absence  of  every  vestige  of  shell,  but  also 
in    some  points  of  their  internal  anatomy,  which   approximate 
them  to   the    gasteropods.     They  are    divided    into  PHYLLIDIA 
(from  the  Greek,  phullon,  a  leaf),  in  which  the  anus  is  posterior 
to   the    mantle,  and  the  head  is  furnished  with  four  tentacles  ; 
and  into  DIPHYLLIDIA  (from  the  Greek,  dis,  two,  and  phullon, 
leaf),  in  which  the  anus  is  on  the  right  side,  and  the  head  has  a 
pointed  tentacle,  and  small  tubercle  on  each  side.     In  all  of  them, 
the  body  is  oval,  or  more  or  less  tuberculous. 

ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  TECTIBRAZTCHIATA. 

36.  The  Tectibranch  gasteropods  are,  like  the  preceding,  ma- 
rine   mollusks,  but  their  branchiae  are  not  symmetrical ;    they 

34.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Chi'ton  ?  (pronounced  Ary-fon.) 
(Chiton;  Greek,  a  garment;) 

.  35.  How  are  the  In'ferobranch  ga'steropods  characterized  ?  (Infero- 
liranch  ;  from  the  Latin,  inferus,  below,  and  bronchia,  ^ills.) 

36.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tecHibranch  gasteropods  ?     'Tecti- 
branch ;  from  the  Latin  tfgo,  I  cover,  and  branchiae,  gills.) 


PLEUROBRANCHUS.— APLYSIA. 


80. PLEUROBRANCHUS. 


are  composed  of  leaflets, 

more  or  less  divided,  at- 
tached along  the  right  side 

(fig.   80,  br),  or  on  the 

back  (fig.  81),  and  more 

or    less    covered    by  the 

mantle,  which  almost  al- 

ways   encloses    a    small 

shell  in   its  thickness. — 

Their  form  is  very  variable.     They  are  divided  into  Pleurobran- 

chus,  Pleurobranchides,  Aplysia,  Dolabella,  Akera^  &c. 

37.  The  PLEUROBRANCHI  are  mol- 
lusks  of  an  oval  form ;  in  which  the 
branchice  are  fixed  on  the  right  side, 
between  the  mantle  and  foot  (fig.  80). 
V  The  mouth  is  in  the  form  of  a  proboscis 
or  trunk,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  small 
triangular  veil,  and  two  tentacles;  they 
have  four  stomachs,  the  second  one  of 
which  is  sometimes  armed  with  bony 
pieces,  and  the  anus  opens  behind  the 
branchioe.  One  species,  of  a  lemon 
yellow  colour,  is  found  on  the  coasts  of 
m  France. 

j,  38.  The  APLYSIJE,  which  the  ancients 
called  sea-hares,  have  a  very  singular 
form ;  the  body  resembles  that  of  a 
sort  of  Limax ;  but  the  edges  of  the 
foot,  erected  in  flexible  crests,  surround 
the  back  and  may  be  even  reflected  over 
it.  Their  head  is  supported  by  a  neck 
of  greater  or  less  length,  and  furnished 
with  four  tentacles  (fig.  81,  ?)>  the  two 
upper  ones  being  hollowed  like  the  ears 
of  a  quadruped,  and  placed  above  the 

eyes  (y).      The   branchia?,   in    the    form  of  very   complicated 


Fig.  81.— APLYSIA 


Explanation  of  Pis.  8'\ — m.  the  mantle,  raised  up  to  show  the  branchiae, 
&r  / — a.  the  anus  ; — 6.  the  mouth  and  trunk  ; — ».  the  veil  ; — t.  the  tentacles ; 
— p.  the  foot 

Explanation  of  Fig.  81. — /,  t.  the  tentacles ;— y.  the  eyes ;— m.  the  mantle ; 
— 6.  the  hranchire. 


37.  What  are  tb-3  characters  of  the  genns  Pleu'robranchus  ?     (Pleuro- 
branchus,  from  the  Greek,  pleura,  side,  and  brfigchia,  gills.) 

38.  What    are   the  characters  of  the   genus  Ap.y'sii?     (Aplysia,   Iron* 
the  Greek,  nplvsia,  uncleanness.) 


DOLABELLA.— AKERA. 


b. 


leaflets,  are  fixed  upon  the 
back,  by  means  of  a  broad 
membranous  pedicle,  and 
covered  by  a  small  mantle 
(m),  in  the  thickness  of 
which  we  find  a  small 
horny  shell.  And  the  anus 
is  situate  behind  the  bran- 
chiae. These  mollusks  live 
on  fucus,  and  are  provided 
with  an  enormous  crop, 
and  three  other  stomachs 
(fig.  82,  d)t  the  second 
and  third  of  which  are  arm- 
ed internally  with  sharp 
hooks,  arid  cartilaginous 
plates.  A  particular  gland 
secretes  an  acrid  liquor,  and 
pours  it  out  through  an 
opening  situate  on  the  right 
side.  A  purple  coloured 
liquid  exudes  sweats 
from  the  edge  of  the 
mantle,  when  the  animal 
contracts,  and  is  sufficient 
in  quantity  to  dye  the 
water  to  a  considerable  distance  around  it.  Several  species 
of  Aplysiae,  which  vary  in  colour,  are  found  on  the  coasts 
of  France. 

39.  The  DolabellcR   do  not   differ    much  from   the  Aplysiae, 
except  in  the  position  of  their  branchiae,  and  their  mantle  at  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body.     They  are  found  in  the  Medi- 
terranean as  well  as  in  the  Indian  seas. 

40.  The  AkertB  (fg.  83)    also  resemble  the   Aplysise  in  the 
complication  and  armature  of  the  stomach,  as  well  as  in  the  posi- 
tion of  their  branchiae,  and  several  other  important  points  of  their 
organization  ;  but  they  are  distinguished  by  their  tentacles,  which 
are   short,  very  thick,  and   so  arranged  as  to  form  together  a 


Fig.  82. AFLYSTA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  82. — Anatomy  of  the  Aplysia : — a.  the  head  ; — b.  the 
pharynx  ; — e.  oesophagus ; — d.  the  three  stomachs  ; — c.  the  intestines ; — /. 
the  nervous  collar  surrounding  the  oesophagus; — g.  the  heart; — h.  the 
•>ranchiae  ; — t.  the  liver  ; — j.  the  anus ; — k.  the  bladder : — I.  the  ovary. 

39.  What  is  Dolabe'lla  ?  (Dolabella,  Latin,  a  little  axe  or  hatchet.) 

40.  How  are  Ake'rse  distinguished  from  the  Aplysise  ?  (Akera,  from  thf 
Greek,  o,  without,  and  keras,  horn.) 


NUDIBRANCH  GASTEROPODS. 


65 


large  fleshy  shield  above  the  eyes 
(fig.  83,  v).  Many  of  these  ani-  P 
mats  effuse  a  purple  liquid.  Some 
are  entirely  unprovided  with  shell, 
or  have  only  the  vestige  of  a  shell : 
these  are  the  Akera  properly  so 
called  ;  others  have  a  shell  some- 
what rolled  upon  itself,  and  with- 
out a  projecting  spire  or  notch, 
which  is  concealed  in  the  thick-  Fig-  83.— BULLA  HYDATIS. 
ness  of  the  mantle  ;  these  form  the  genus  Bullcea ;  and  there 
are  still  others  in  which  the  shell,  only  covered  by  a  slight  epi- 
dermis, is  more  convoluted  and  sufficiently  large  to  afford 
a  retreat  for  the  animal :  these  constitute  the  division  of 
Bulla. 

ORDER  OF   GASTEROPODA.    NUDIBHANCHIATA. 

41.  The  mollusks  composing  this  group  are  without  a  shell 
and  carry  their  branchiae  on  some  part  of  the  back  (fig.  84). 
The  structure  of  some  of  their  internal  organs  approximates 
them  to  the  Pulmonea,  the  Inferobranchiata,  and  the  Tectibran- 
chiata  ;  they  all  inhabit  the  sea. 


Fig.  84.  -  EOLIDIA. 

42.  Among  the  genera  possessing  this  kind  of  organization, 
we  will  cite  the  Doris,  the  general  form  of  which  is  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  ihe  Pleurobranchus  (fg>  83),  and  in  which  the 
branchiae  are  inserted  in  a  circle  around  the  anus,  at  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  back  ;  ihe  TRITONIA,  in  which  the  branchia?, 
in  form  of  miniature  trees,  are  attached  along  the  two  sides  of 

Explanation  of  Fig.  83.  —  Animal  of  the  Bulla  hydatis  :  —  c.  the  shell;— 
p,  p.  the  two  lobes  of  the  foot  ;  —  d.  posterior  part  of  the  foot  :  —  ».  the  sort  of 
veil  formed  by  the  union  of  the  tentacles  ;  —  a.  the  anus. 


41.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Nudi'branch  gasteropods? 
branch  ;  from  the  Latin,  nudus,  naked,  and  bronchia,  gills.) 

42.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Glau'cus?    (Glaucus;  from  the 
Greek,  glaukos,  blue.)     What  are  the  characters  of  the  Eolidia  ? 

6*  2W 


GLAUCUS.— CARHXARIA. 


the  back,  and  in  which  the  mouth  is 
armed  with  lateral  horny  jaws,  similar 
to  shears;  *,he  GLAUCUS,  remarkable 
for  its  blue  colour  (Jig.  85),  in  which  ;."- 
the  branchiae,  three  pairs  in  number, 
are  situated  in  the  same  manner,  but 
each  one  is  composed  of  several  long 
fringes,  spread  like  a  fan  ;  and  the 
EOLIDIJE  (Jig-  84),  which  resemble 
small  Limaces  in  form,  in  which  the 
branchiae  are  composed  of  laminae,  or 
leaflets,  arranged  like  scales,  more  or 
less  crowded  together  on  each  side 
of  the  back.  They  are  found  in 
every  sea. 


Fig.  85. — GLAUCUS. 


ORDER  OF  GASTEROPODA  HETEROFODA. 

43.  These  gasteropods  are  not  organized,  like  all  the  pre- 
ceding, for  crawling  on  the  belly,  but  for  swimming  only.  In 
fact,  their  foot,  in  place  of  forming  a  horizontal  fleshy  disk,  is 
compressed  into  a  vertical  membranous  plate,  which  is  used  as  a 
fin.  Their  body  is  formed  of  a  transparent,  gelatinous  sub- 
stance, and  their  branchiaa  are  placed  on  the  posterior  part  of  the 
back. 

The  principal  genera  of  this  group  are  the  CAB^NARIA  and 

FlOROLA. 

ye  br  c 


p  v 

Fig.  86. CARINARIA    MEDITERKANKA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  8G. — 1>.  the  mouth  ;— t.  the  tentacles ;— y.  the  eyes ; — 
<?.  the  diomach ;— /.  the  liver  ; — c.  the  shell ; — br.  the  branchiae  ; — p.  the  foot; 
— ».  a  small  sucker  situate  on  the  side  of  the  foot. 

43.  Wnat  are  the  cnaracters  of  the  Heteropo'da  ?  (Heteropoda ;  from  the 
Grrek,  eferos,  various,  and  pous,  foot.) 


PTEROPODA.  67 


44.  The  CARINARI^E  have  the  abdomen  (that  is  to  say,  a 
kind  of  sac  enclosing  the  heart,  the  liver  and  some  other  organs) 
covered  by  a  symmetrical  and  conical  shell,  the  apex  of  which 
is  curved  backwards,  and  the  anterior  edge  covers  the  base  of  the 
branchiae  (fg.  &6,  br}.  There  is  one  species  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, but  three  have  been  discovered. 

The  FIOKOL.E  have  no  shell,  but,  in  other  respects,  very  much 
resemble  the  Carinariee. 

CLASS   OF   MOLLUSCA   PTEROPODA. 

45.  The  mollusks  composing  this  group 
are  organized  for  swimming  only:  they 
possess  no  organ  by  means  of  which  they 
can  crawl,  or  even  attach  themselves  to 
submarine  bodies,  but  continually  float  in 
the  sea,  and  move  by  the  assistance  of  fins, 
placed  like  wings  on  each  side  of  the  mouth 
(fg.  87).  They  are  all  of  small  size, 
and  most  of  them  inhabit  the  seas  of  warm 
countries ;  but  they  are  also  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  poles.  The  Clio 
borealis,  for  example,  abounds  so  exten- 
Fig.  87— HYALEA.  sively  in  the  arctic  regions,  that,  in  spite 
ol  their  very  small  size  (scarcely  an  inch  long),  they  become, 
in  certain  seasons,  the  ordinary  food  of  whales.  Their  form 
varies  much  :  some  of  them  are  naked  ;  others  are  provided  with 
a  shell.  They  constitute  several  genera,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Clio,  Hyalea,  Cleodora,  Cymbulia,  &c. 


44.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Carina'ria  ?     (Carinaria ;  from 
the  Latin,  cati'na,  a  keel.) 

45.  How  are  the  Pte'ropoda  characterized  ?    (Pteropoda ;  from  the  Gre»k, 
Vteron,  wing,  and  pous,  foot.) 


LAMELLIBRANCH  MOLLUSKS. 


LESSON  V. 

CLASS   OF   MOLLUSC  A  ACEPHALA,  or,  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.— 

Organization — Classification. 
FAMILY  OF   OSTRACEA. — Classification — Oysters — Gryphaa — • 

Pecten — Lima — Malleus — Anornia  —  Spondylus — Perna~ 

Etheria — Avicula — Pearls — Pearl  fishery — Pinna — Area — • 

Pectunculus — Trigonia. 
FAMILY  OF  MYTILACEA. — Mussels  (Mytilus)  —  Modiolus — Ano* 

donta — Unio. 
FAMILY  OF  CHAMACEA. — Tridacna — Chama — Isocardia. 

CLASS   OF   MOLLUSCA  LAM2LLIBRANCHIATA. 

1.  All  the  mollusks  we  have  heretofore  considered  have  a  dis- 
tinct head ;  those  we  have  yet  to  mention  are  without  this  part, 
and    their   whole   organization    is    of  the  simplest   kind.     The 
mouth  is  always  concealed  at  the  bottom  of  the  mantle,  or  be- 
tween its  folds :  they  have  neither  teeth  nor  eyes.     The  nervous 
system  is  very  simple,  and  the  organs  of  locomotion  are  very 
incomplete  or  lamellibranch. 

2.  In  animals  which  form  the  class  of  acephalous  mollusks 
(called  by  Lamarck  Mollusca  conchifera),  the  mantle  is  very 
large  and  folded  in  two,  so  as  to  enclose  the  body,  as  the  leaves 
of  a  book  a  re  enclosed  by  its  covers.     Sometimes  these  two  leaves 
are  free  at  their  inferior  edge,  sometimes  united  so  as  to  con- 
stitute   a    tube    (fig-  88,' ts,  ti).      A    shell,  composed   of   two 
pieces,  called  valves,  covers  this  mantle  entirely  or  in  part,  and 
at  its  superior  part  there  is  a  hinge  furnished  with  an  elastic 
ligament,  the  play  of  which  causes  the  valves  to  gape  whenever 
the  muscles  (ma,  mp),  which  extend  from  one  valve  to  the  other, 
do  not  contract  so  as  to  keep  them  shut.     The  branchioe  (br) 
are  in  form  of  great  leaves,  transversely  and  regularly  striated  ; 
they  are  always  four  in    number,  and    placed  between  the  in- 
ternal face  of  the  mantle  (or  pallial  membrane)  and  the  body  of 
the  animal.     The  mouth  is  at  one  of  the  extremities  of  the  body, 
and  has  on   each    side   of  it    two   small   triangular  bodies  (Z), 
which  are  formed    by  the  extremities  of  the  lips  and  serve  as 
tentacula ;    the  stomach,  liver,  and   other   viscera,   are   lodged 
between    the   mouth    and   anus,    and    beneath    the    heart    (co), 
which  is  situate  on  the  back ;  and  the  lower  part  of  the  body 

1.  What  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  lamellibra'nch  mollusks? 
(Lamellibranch;  from  the  Latin,  lamella,  a  thin  plate,  and  branchia^  gills.) 

2.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  acephalous  mollusks  ?  (pronounced 
a-kef-alus  ;  from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and  kephale,  head. 


ANATOMY  OF  A  MACTRA. 


Fig.  88. ANATOMY    OF    A    MACTRA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  88.— Anatomy  of  a  mactra ;  one  valve  of  the  shell, 
the  corresponding  half  of  the  mantle  and  the  branchiae  have  been  removed 
on  the  left  side  : — c.  the  shell ; — m.  the  mantle ; — ma.  the  anterior  muscle ; 
— mp.  the  posterior  muscle; — b.  the  mouth; — t.  the  tentacle; — e.  the  sto. 
mach; — c*.  appendix  of  the  stomach; — i.  the  intestines;—/,  the  liver; — p. 
the  foot ;— co.  the  heart  traversed  by  the  rectum  (r) ;— ts.  the  superior  tub«s 
into  which  the  anus  (a)  opens  ; — ti.  the  inferior  or  respiratory  tube  ; — Ir.  the 
branchiae  of  the  right  side  ; — ga.  the  anterior  ganglia ; — no.  nerves  arising1 
from  them; — ng.  inter-ganglionic  nerves; — gp.  poster'scr  ganglia;— ~np 
nerves  arising  from  them  and  distributed  to  the  mantje, 


70 


DIVISION  OF  TH±,  ACEPHALA. 


is  almost  always  prolonged  into  a  fleshy  mass  (p),  called  the 
foot,  which  serves  for  motion,  and  sometimes  has  at  its  base  a 
bundle  of  horny  threads,  called  byssus,  by  means  of  which  the 
animal  fixes  itself  to  submarine  bodies. 

3.  This  class  is  divided  into  five  great  families,  which  may  be 
recognised  by  the  following  characters  : 

(FAMILIES.) 
f  having-  the  mantle  open,  and  without  tubes  or  particular  )  n 

\  USTRACEA. 


apertures. 


'not  prolonged 

so  as  to  form 

tubes.        The  " 

having    the 

mantle 

mantle 

closed      be- 

i 

hind,  so  as 

to  form  par-- 

ticular 

.  openings. 

prolonged    so 

as  to  form  two 

tubes.       The  " 

mantle 

open  in  front,  and  having  "j 
but  one  separate  aperture  I 
for  the  escape  of  excre-  j 
ment.  J 

closed  and  pierced  by 
three  apertures,  the  first 
of  which  serves  for  the 
passage  of  the  foot,  the 
second  for  respiration,  and 
the  third  for  the  exit  of 
excrement. 


open  in  front  and  present-  )  /^ 

ing  two  tubes  behind.          \  CARDUCEA. 

closed,  and  not  having,  in"| 

front  or  below,  but  a  single 

opening  for  the  passage  of  ^  INCLUSA. 

the  foot,  and   behind,  two  I 

tubes. 


4.  The  FAMILY  of  OSTRACEA  has  the  oyster  for  its  type, 
and   is   composed   of  a    great   number   of  mollusks,   that   are 
entirely  without  a  foot,  or  having  a  very  small  one  only,  and 
which,  for  the   most  part,  live  attached  to   submarine   bodies, 
either  by  their  shell  or  by  their  byssus.     The  mantle  is  open 
be'iind  as  well  as  in  front,  and  its  two  lobes  are  nowhere  united 
to  form  particular  opening-,  as  we  have  remarked  in  all  other 
acephala. 

5.  This  group  is  divided  into  two  tribes,  according  as  there 
is  a  single  muscle,  going  from  one  valve  to  the  other,  or  two 


3.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  class  of  lamellibranch  mollusks  divided  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Ostra'coa  ?    (From  the  Latin, 
ostrea,  an  oyster.) 

5.  What  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  tribe  of  Mono'mya'ria  ? 
(Mono'mya'ria.    From  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  and  mvon,  muscle.)    How 
is  the  tribe  of  Di'mya'ria  distinguished  ?     (Di'mya'ria.     From  the  Greek, 
dis,  two,  and  muon,  muscle.) 


OYSTERS. 


71 


of  these  organs,  one  placed  near  the  anus  and  the  other  in  front 
of  the  mouth,  an  arrangement  which  exists  in  nearly  ail  other 
acephala.  The  first  tribe,  in  which  there  is  but  one  muscle,  is 
called  Monomyaria,  and  the  second  Dimyaria. 

6.  To  the  first  of  these  divisions  belong  the  OYSTERS, — 
Ostrea.  The  shell  of  these  mollusks  is  irregular,  laminated,  and 
composed  of  two  unequal  valves,  united  by  a  short  ligament 
lodged  at  eilher  extremity  in  a  pit,  and  the  hinge  is  without  teeth 
or  projecting  lamina.  The  structure  of  the  animal  itself  k 


Fig.  89. ANATOMY  OF  AN  OYSTER. 

very  simple.  Its  mantle,  the  lobes  of  which  are  united  above 
near  the  hinge  (6),  has  a  double  fringed  border :  there  is  no 
appearance  of  foot.  The  adductor  muscle  (e)  of  the  valves  (com- 
monly called  the  heart),  is  situate  near  the  centre  of  the  body, 
and  the  heart  (/),  instead  of  being  placed  as  usual  on  the  back, 

Explanation  of  Fig.  89. — Anatomy  of  an  oyster; — a.  one  of  the  valves  of 
the  shell ; — b.  the  hinge  ; — c.  mantle  of  the  left  side ; — d.  portion  of  tho 
right  lobe  of  the  mantle  ; — e .  the  muscle  ;— /.  the  mouth ; — g.  the  labiaJ 
tentacula ; — h.  the  liver ; — i.  the  intestine  : — j.  the  anus  ; — k.  the  branchiae  ; 
— /.  the  heart. 


6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Ostracea  ?  Where  are  oysters 
found? 


72  OYSTERS. 

is  found  between  this  muscle  and  the  mass  of  the  viscera,  where 
it  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  brown  colour  of  its  auricle;  the 
mouth  is  concealed  under  a  sort  of  hood,  formed  by  the  union  of 
tne  upper  portion  of  the  two  lobes  of  the  mantle;  the  tentacles, 
which  surround  this  opening,  closely  resemble  the  branchiae, 
which  are  large  and  cover  the  whole  abdomen;  and  the  anus  is 
seen  above  the  muscle.  All  these  mollusks  have  an  ovary  and 
produce  eggs,  which,  at  the  time  of  laying,  are  extremely  small 
and  suspended  in  a  whitish  liquid,  the  appearance  of  which  is 
analogous  to  that  of  minute  drops  of  tallow.  This  spawn 
floats  on  the  water  and  soon  adheres  to  neighbouring  shells  or 
some  other  submarine  body :  and  the  young  oysters  are  always 
adherent,  either  to  each  other  or  to  an  adult  oyster  or  to  the  rocks 
on  which  they  live ;  but,  in  the  first  case,  they  generally  detach 
themselves  as  they  advance  in  age,  and  form  extensive  masses 
which  are  called  beds  or  banks*  Their  growth  is  very  rapid. 
We  are  assured  that  at  the  end  of  three  months  after  being 
spawned,  they  are  of  the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  dollar,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year,  they  are  about  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter ;  and  in  three  years  they  attain  to  about  three  inches  in 
length.  Nothing  is  precisely  known  of  the  duration  of  their 
existence. 

7.  Many  species  of  oysters  are  described  :  the  most  interest- 
ing and  most  extensively  diffused  is  the  Ostrea  edulis — the 
edible  oyster ;  it  affords  us  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  article  of 
diet,  and  its  consumption  has  been  immense  since  the  remotest 
antiquity.  These  mollusks  arc  ordinarily  found  in  great 
numbers  together,  forming  beds  of  considerable  extent,  situate 
near  sea  coasts,  in  bays  or  estuaries,  or  in  localities  where 
the  sea  is  not  very  deep.  They  are  objects  of  active  pursuit, 
and  are  caught  by  means  of  a  kind  of  rake  with  a  net  attach- 
ed, called  a  drag,  or  dredge,  which  is  drawn  over  the  oyster- 
bed  ;  or  where  the  water  is  shallow,  they  are  taken  up  by  long 
tongs  of  a  suitable  formation  :  in  France,  after  being  caught  they 
are  not  immediately  consumed,  but  are  placed  (planted  out) 
in  particular  basins,  where  they  are  kept  fora  time,  and  where  they 
fatten  and  acquire  a  more  delicate  flavour.  The  largest  are 
usually  taken  from  the  shell  and  pickled  ;  but  the  others  are 
eaten  without  preparation,  and  are  esteemed  by  many  only 
while  alive.  In  fact  their  preservation  for  any  length  of  time 
is  prevented  by  the  habit  these  animals  have  of  closing  the 
shell  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water.  When  dead 
theii  shell  remains  open. 


7,  How  are  oysters  caught  1 


GRYPHyE  A.— PECTEN.  73 

8.  European  oysters  possess  a  much  more  decided  flavour,  a 
stronger  taste,  than  those  of  the  United  States  ;  Americans,  on  first 
eating  oysters  in  London  or  Paris,  commonly  complain  of  their 
strong  coppery  taste,  and  it  is  not  until  after  several  trials  they 
learn  to  prefer  them  to  our  own.     The  locality  of  oyster  beds 
exercises  a  great  influence  over  the  taste  of  the  oyster  ;  within 
the  tropics  they  are  rarely  found  good,  and  they  are  almost  un- 
known in  the  Pacific  Ocean.     Oysters  taken  near  the  entrance 
of  t..e  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays  have  a  high  reputation, 
and  are  consumed  in  great  quantities.     Norfolk  oysters  are  pro- 
verbially excellent. 

The  markets  of  Paris  and  the  north  of  France  are  chiefly 
supplied  from  the  bay  of  Cancale ;  from  which  the  boats  of 
Houlle,  near  Cancale,  and  Granville,  carry  away  more  than 
eighty  millions  of  these  mollusks  every  year,  the  major  part  of 
which  are  sent  to  Courseulles  and  other  parts  of  Normandy, 
where  there  are  considerable  establishments  for  the  parkage 
(planting  out)  of  oysters,  whence  they  are  sent  post  to  Paris. 
About  the  beginning  of  summer  these  mollusks  cast  their  spawn  : 
at  this  season  it  is  customary  not  to  eat  them,  and  it  is  generally 
believed  they  are  then  unwholesome,  but  this  opinion  does  not 
appear  to  be  well  founded. 

9.  We  give  the  name=of  GRYPH^EA  to  shells,  which  for  the 
most  part  are  fossil,  and  which  are  very   analogous  to  oysters, 
but   the   convex  valve  is  more  pro- 
jecting at  the  apex  or  beak,  and  at 

that  point  bends  into  a  hook  (fg.  90). 
They  are  found  in  very  ancient  for- 
mations. There  is  but  one  living 
species  known. 

10.  The  SCALLOPS — Pecten  (also 
called  the  pilgrim's  shell,  from  being 

worn  as  an  ornament  by  pilgrims) —  Flg'  9°' 

resemble  the  oysters  in  the  disposition  of  the  hinge,  and  may 
be  easily  recognised  by  their  inequivalve,  semicircular  shell, 
almost  always  marked  by  ribs,  radiating  from  the  apex  of  each 
valve  towards  their  margin,  and  having  on  each  side  of  the 
hinge  an  angular  enlargement  called  the  ear  (Jig.  91,  e).  In 
some  species  of  Pecten  there  is  a  byssus ;  but  most  of  these  mol- 


8.  How  do  European  oysters  differ  from  those  of  the  United  States  ? 

9.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Gryphse'a  ?  (Gryphaea ;  from  the  Greek, 
grvpos,  incurved.) 

10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Pecten  ?  (Pecten,  Latin,  a 
comb.)     What  is  meant  bv  the  ear  of  a  shell  ? 

7 


74 


MALLEUS.— ANOMIA.— SPONDYLUS. 


Fig.  91. PECTEN  JACOB^EUS. 

and  Pediim,  the  shells  of 
what  resembling  the  shell 
of  the  Scallop  in  their  gene- 
ral form : 

11.  The  Hammer  Oys- 
ters—Malle.vs  (fig.  92) — 
which  have  a  notch  near 
the  hinge  for  the  passage 
of  a  byssus :  the  shell  is 
irregular  and  the  ears  are 
prolonged,  making  its 
shape  slightly  resemble  a 
hammer :  the  ANOMI^E, 
in  which  the  interior  valve 
is  deeply  notched  (Jig.  93) 


lusks  are  not  adherent,  and  can  even 
swim  with  considerable  rapidity  by 
suddenly  closing  their  valves.  The 
mouth  is  furnished  wilh  many 
branched  tentacula,  which  lake  the 
place  of  labial  lamella?,  and  be- 
tween the  branchiae  there  is  a  small 
oval  foot.  St.  James'  Pecten  is 
found  on  the  coast  of  France.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  very  nu- 
merous and  are  very  generally  dif- 
fused. 

The    following    genera    are    also 

placed    among   the   oysters ;    Lima 

which  are  oval  or  oblong  and  some- 


Fig.  93.— ANOMfA. 


Fig.  92.— MALLEUS. 

alongside  of  the  ligament,  permitting 
the  central  part  of  the  muscle  to  pass 
through  it  to  be  inserted  into  a  plate, 
sometimes  horny,  sometimes  stony, 
by  aid  of  which  the  animal  attaches 
itself: 

12.  SPONDYLTJS,  in  which  the 
shell  is  foliated  or  even  spiny,  and 
on  each  valve,  at  the  hinge  there 
are  two  teeth  which  are  received 
into  pits  in  the  opposite  valve: 


11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ma'lleus  ?  (Malleus,  Latin,  a 
hammer.)  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ano'mia  ?  (Anomia ; 
from  the  Greek,  </,  without,  and  womos,  law ;  because  not  easly  placed  accor- 
ding" to  the  laws  of  classification.) 

12  How  is  the  genus  Spo'ndylus  known  ?  (Spondylus,  Latin,  a  spindle, 
or  shellfish.) 


PERNA ETHERIA.— AVICULA  75 

13.  PERNA  (fg.  94),  in 
which  the  hinge  is  composed 
of  several  ligaments  inserted 
into  particular  pits  ;  besides 
a  great  many  other  shells, 
either  recent  or  fossil. 

Among  the  Ostracea 
provided  with  two  distinct 
muscles,  and  the  shells  con- 
sequently marked,  on  the 
internal  surface  of  each 
valve,  by  two  irregular  sur- 
faces (muscular  depressions) 
corresponding  with  the  in-  Fi>.  94.— PERNA. 

sertion   of    these   organs,   we    will    mention  Etheria,    Avicula, 
Pinna,  Area,  and  Trigonia. 

14.  The  EtheritE  are  very  analogous  to  oysters :  their  shell  is 
,  inequivalve,  very  irregular,  without  teeth  at  the  hinge  and 

provided  with  a  ligament,  which  is  partly  internal  and    partly- 
external.     They  are  very  rare  shells,  and  have  been  overlooked 
by  travellers  from  being  attached  to  rocks  at  considerable  depths.. 
They  inhabit  the  East  Indian  seas. 

15.  The  AVICUL.E  are  recognised  by  their  inequivalve  shell, 
with  a  rectilinear  hinge  furnished  with  a  narrow  ligament,  and 

frequently  elongated 
into  wings  at  its  iwo 
extremities  (fg-  95). 
The  body  of  these 
mollusks  is  very  small 
and  prolonged  into  a 
vermiform  and  coni- 
cal foot,  and  furnished 
with  a  byssus,  for 

the  passage  of  which 
Fig.  95.— AVICULA.  there  js  a  notch  in  the 

side  of  the  shell.    The  anterior  adductor  muscle  is  extremely  small 
and    the  labial    appendages  very  large.     These  mollusks  have 


13.  What   is  the  genus  Per'na?  (Perna,  Latin,  a  gammon  of  bacon,  a 

14.  What   are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ethe'ria  ?  (Etheria,  from  the 
Greek,  aithb,  1  shine.) 

15.  How  is  the  Avi'cula  recognised  ?    (Avicula,  from  the  Latin,  avis,  a 
t»rd ;  because,  when  the  shell  is  widely  open,  it  bears  a  remote  resemblance 
to  a    bird  with  spread  wings)     How  does  the    genus  Meleagri'na    differ 
trom  Avicula?    (Meleagri'na;  from  the  Greek,  meleng'ris,  a  guinca-hen.) 


76 


MELEAGRINA.— PEARLS. 


Fig.  96. MELEAGRINA 

MARGAR1TIFERA. 


been  divided,  perhaps  without  sufficient  reason,  into  two  genera, 
AVICULA    and    MELEAGRINA,    according    as    the   shell    is    with 

or  without  the  wing-like  prolon- 
gations, and  the  hinge  is  armed 
with  a  tooth  or  unprovided  with  a 
similar  protuberance:  the  shell  of 
the  latter  is  nearly  equivalve,  and 
the  passage  of  the  byssus  produces 
in  each  valve  a  notch.  The 
Meleagrince  are  more  scaly  ex- 
ternally than  the  AviculaB.  Their 
nacre  is  sometimes  very  thick  and 
very  brilliant ;  and  the  extravasa- 
tion of  the  liquid  destined  for  the 
periodical  augmentation  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  shell,  frequently  gives 
rise  to  isolated  deposits  of  this 
beautiful  nacre,  forming  pearls. 
The  shell  of  the  Pearl  Oyster  is 
nearly  semicircular,  scaly  and  g.-eenish  brown  externally ;  it 
grows  to  considerable  size,  and  is  to  be  found  on  the  coast  of 
Ceylon,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  many 
other  localities,  where  it  occurs  in  extensive  beds,  attached  by 
its  byssus  to  submarine  rocks :  it  is  the  object  of  an  active 
fishery. 

16.  Pearls,  as  stated  above,  are  bodies  of  the  same  nature 
as  the  brilliant  nacre  lining  the  shell:  they  are  composed  of 
concentric  layers  of  nacre  very  closely  applied  one  over  the 
other,  like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  and  are  produced  whenever 
this  matter,  instead  of  being  spread  out  in  thin  layers  over  those 
already  deposited,  constitutes  small  isolated  masses  like  little 
drops,  or  adhering  to  the  shell  by  a  mere  pedicle.  Their  for- 
mation depends  upon  a  kind  of  disease,  or,  at  least,  upon  an 
anomalous  activity  of  the  secretory  process  which  gives  rise  to 
nacre  :  hence  every  circumstance  that  stimulates  this  secretion, 
such  as  the  presence  of  a  grain  of  sand  or  other  foreign  body 
betwixt  the  shell  and  the  mantle  of  the  animal,  tends  to  bring 
about  this  formation.  Pearl  Oysters  are  not  the  only  mollusks 
that  produce  pearls.  All  shells  that  are  internally  nacreous 
may  contain  them.  Patellae,  Haliotides,  and  our  common  mus- 
sels sometimes  contain  them,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
them  in  a  sort  of  large  mussel  (Unio)  which  inhabits  the  great 
rivers  of  northern  Europe  and  the  United  States ;  but  the 


16.  What  are  pearls? 


PEARL  FISHING.  77 


Meleagrinse  furnish  the  greatest  quantity  and  yield  the  mosf 
beautiful  pearls. 

17.  The  chief  pearl  fisheries  are  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  on  the 
coast  of  Ceylon,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  and 
on  the  coast  of  California ;  but  there  are  banks  of  Meleiigrinae 
(pearl  oysters)  in  many  other  localities,  such  as  the  coasts  of 
Japan,  Cumana,  &c.  To  obtain  these  precious  mollusks,  men 
accustomed  to  the  exercise  dive  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  and 
collect  them  at  depths  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet.  To  accel- 
erate his  descent  the  diver  seizes  a  stone  (weighing  from  15  to 
25  pounds)  with  his  toes,  and  on  reaching  the  bottom  he  aban- 
dons the  diving  stone  (which  is  drawn  up  by  attendants  in  the 
boat,  to  be  prepared  to  take  him  down  again),  clings  to  the 
ground,  and  begins  to  fill  a  net  which  he  carries  down  with  him 
for  the  purpose.  When,  from  the  necessity  of  breathing  or  fear 
of  sharks,  he  wishes  to  ascend,  he  checks  the  cord  of  the  net, 
which  is  instantly  felt  by  the  attendants,  who  commence  pulling 
up  as  fast  as  they  are  able  ;  the  diver  remains  with  the  net  until 
it  is  so  far  clear  of  the  bottom  as  to  be  in  no  danger  of  upsetting, 
and  then  commences  hauling  himself  up  by  the  cord  (hand 
over  hand),  which  his  attendants  are  likewise  pulling;  when  by 
these  measures  his  body  has  acquired  an  impetus  upwards,  he 
forsakes  the  cord  and  rapidly  ascends  to  the  surface,  swims  to 
his  diving  stone,  and  by  the  time  the  contents  of  his  net  have 
been  emptied  into  the  boat,  he  is  ready  to  go  down  again.  One 
diver  will  take  up  in  a  day  from  one  to  four  thousand  oysters. 
The  diver  seldom  exceeds  a  minute  under  water;  the  more 
common  time  is  from  53  to  57  seconds.  In  order  that  the  banks 
may  not  be  devastated,  they  are  under  regulation,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  seven  years  are  required  for  the  oyster  to  attain  its 
full  size.  At  Ceylon  the  fishing  season  lasts  from  the  middle  of 
February  to  the  end  of  March. 

"  During  this  period,  the  shores  of  Arippo  are  enlivened  by  crowds  of 
people  from  all  parts  of  the  country ;  divers,  boat-owners,  speculators,  and 
the  curious,  assemble  to  behold 

'  Pale  glistening  pearls,  and  rainbow-colour'd  shells,' 

while  the  lapidary  attends  with  his  wooden  stand  and  bow,  to  drill  the 
pearls  and  fit  them  to  be  strung-,  so  soon  as  they  are  got  out  of  the 
oyster,  which,  according1  to  all  accounts,  is  a  tedious  and  rather  disgusting 
operation.  The  oysters  are  put  into  pens,  and  there  left  until  the  animal 
matter  becomes  softened  by  putrefaction,  when  it  is  subjected  to  frequent 
washings,  and  the  pearls  shine  forth,  emblems  of  purity  in  the  loathsome 
mass.  Some  are  of  a  bluish,  some  of  a  yellowish,  and  some  of  a  whitish 
lustre;  each  class  finds  a  ready  market  among  its  admirers;  in  the  East, 
the  bluish  and  yellowish  varieties  are  most  prized,  but  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Christian  fair  the  pure  white  shines  brightest." — Ruschenberger''s  Voyage 
round  the  World. 

17.  How  are  pearls  obtained  ? 

7*  2X 


78 


PINNA.— ARCA.  -PECTUNCULUS. 


The  annual  revenue  from  the  pearl  fishery  of  Ceylon  is  esti- 
mated at  about  $80,000. 

18.  The  PINNAE  have  two  equal  valves  in  form  of  a  half-open 
fan,  gaping  and  united  by  a  ligament  along  one  of  their  sides. 
A  very  large  species  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  which  lives 
half-buried  in  the  sand,  and  anchored  by  its  byssus,  the  fila- 
ments of  which,  being  very  strong,  fine,  and  brilliant  as  silk,  are 
employed  by  the  inhabitants  of  some  parts  of  Calabria  and  Sicily 
in  the  manufacture  of  precious  stuffs. 

19.  The  ARC.E  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  the 
preceding  by  their  equi- 
valve  shell.  The  hinge 
which  extends  along  the 
side  of  the  valves  is 
studded  with  a  great  many 
little  teeth,  which  fit  into 
the  intervals  of  those  of 
the  opposite  side  recipro- 
cally ;  in  some,  the  ARCA  PROPERLY  so  CALLED  (fig'  97),  the 
hinge  is  rectilinear,  and  the  shell  is 
longer  in  a  direction  parallel  to 
this  junction ;  in  others,  named 
PECTUNCULUS  (fig.  98),  the  hinge 
is  curved,  and  the  shell  is  lenticu- 
lar in  form.  The  first  are  met  with 
near  the  shore  in  rocky  situations, 
and  are  ordinarily  covered  by  a 
hairy  epidermis;  the  latter  live  in 
the  mud. 

20.  Finally,  the  TRIGOTTLE,  most 
of  the  species  of  which  are  fossil,' 
are   remarkable  for   their   peculiar 
hinge ;  the  right  valve  is  furnished 
with  two  projecting  plates,  crenulate  fig.  98.— PECTUNCULUS. 


Fig.  97.— ARCA. 


18.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Pi'nna?     (Pinna,  Latin,  i 
fin.) 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Area  ?     What  are  the  charac. 
ters  of  the  genus  Pectu'nculus  ?     (Pectunculus,  Latin,  the  diminutive  of 
pecten,  a  comb.) 

20.  What  is  Trigo'nia  ?     (From  the  Greek,  trigonos,  having  three  cor- 
ners.) 


TRIGONIA.— MUSSELS.  71) 


on  each  face  (Jig.  99), 
and  entering  between 
four  plates  of  the  left 
(opposite)  valve,  like- 
wise crenulated  upon 
their  internal  face 
only.  There  is  but 
one  living  species 
known,  —  Trigonia 
pectinata, — which  in- 
habits the  seas  of  Figt  99._TR1GONiA  PECTINATA. 
New  Holland ;  exter- 
nally, it  has  the  aspect  of  Pecten  without  ears. 

21.  In  the  Family  of  MYTILACEA,  the  mantle  is  widely  open 
in  front,  as  in  the  Ostracea,  but  there  is  a  particular  opening  for 
the  escape  of  excrement ;  this  orifice,  however,  is  not  prolonged 
into  a  tube,  as  in  the  families  that  follow,  and  there  is  no  special 
aperture  for  the  passage  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  respiration. 
There  is    always  a  distinct   foot,  and    the    valves  are  approxi- 
mated by  the  action  of  two  adductor  muscles. 

The  Mytilacece  resemble  each  other  sufficiently  to  be  commonly 
known  under  the  single  name  of  Mussels,  but  they  require,  never- 
theless, to  be  separated  into  several  genera,  the  most  important 
of  which  are,  Mussels  properly  so  called, — Mytilus, — Anodonta, 
and  Unio. 

22.  MUSSELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED — Mytilus — abound  on  the 
rocks  of  the  coast  of  France  and  of  other  countries,  where  they 
live  fixed  by  the  byssus,  and   generally  closely  united  to  each 
other.       Their  shell   is  shut,  and  its  valves,  triangular  in  form, 
are  equal,  arched  and  united  by  a  narrow  ligament  on  the  side  of 
their  acute  angle.       The    mouth  of  the  animal  is  situate  near 
the  summit  of  the  shell,  the  opposite  extremity  of  which  gives 
passage  to  the  byssus;  the  anus  also  is  placed  near  the  hinge; 
and  opposite  to  this  orifice  there  is  a  particular  opening  or  small 
tube  formed  by  the  mantle;  towards  the  round  angle  of  the  shell, 
where  the  water  necessary  for  respiration   passes,  the  edge  of 
the  mantle  is  fringed  ;  and  the  foot  is  slender,  cylindrical,  and 
furnished  behind  with  a  silky  byssus.       Mussels  are  generally 
eaten  as  food,  but  they  sometimes  occasion  a  kind  of  poisoning, 
accompanied    by  very  violent  symptoms,  occasionally  followed 
by  death. 


21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Mytila'cea  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  My'tilus  ?     (F'om  the  Gree\ 
tnutilos,  a  mussel.) 


80  ANODONTA.— UNTO. 


'23.  We  distinguish  those  Mussels  which  have  the  hinge  placed 
lower,  under  the  name  of  MODIOLUS,  and  another  is  called 
LITHODOMUS,  which  hns  the  shell  almost  equally  rounded  at  both 
ends,  and  excavates  holes  in  stones,  to  which  it  was  at  first  only 
suspended. 


Fig.  100. ANODONTA. 

24.  The    ANODONTJE    live   in  fresh    waters,  and   are   recog- 
nised by  their  thin  shell,  moderately  inflated,  oval,  close,  and 
without  teeth  in  the  hinge  (Jig.  100);  they  want  the  byssus,  and 
are   provided  with    a  very   large   foot,  compressed    and   almost 
quadrangular   in  form,  by  means  of  which  they  crawl  on  the 
sand  or  mud.     A  great  many  species  are  found  in  the  great  rivers 
of  the  United  States. 

25.  The  UNIONES  closely  resemble  the  Anodonta),  but  have  a 
more  complicated  hinge,  the  right  valve  having  a  pit  (fossette) 
into  which  a  tooth  of  the  left  valve  penetrates,  presenting  behind 
a    long   lamina,    which,  in   its    turn,   is    received    between  two 
laminae  of  the  opposite  side.     These  mollusks  also  inhabit  fresh 
waters,  but  prefer  those  which  are  running.     A  very  great  num- 
ber of  species  are  found  in  our  Western  waters,  for  the  descrip 
uon  of  most  of  which  we  are  indebted  to  the   labours  of  Mr.  I. 
Lea,  of  Philadelphia. 

23.  What  is  the  genus  Litho'domus  ?     (From  the  Greek,  lithos,  a  stone, 
and  the  Latin,  dornus,  a  house.) 

24.  How  is   the   genus   Anodo'nta   recognised?      (Anodonta,   from   the 
f  Jreek,  </,  without,  and  odous,  in  the  genitive  case,  odontos,  a  tooth.) 

25.  What   are   the   characters   of  the   genus    U'nio  ?     (Unio,   Latin,   % 
pearl.) 


FAMILY  OF  CHAMAUEA. 


Fig.  101. — UNIO. 

We  also  place  in  this  same  group  certain  marine  mollusks, 
which  resemble  the  Unios  in  their  organization  and  the  general 
disposition  of  the  hinge,  but  in  which  the  beaks  (summits)  of 
the  shell  are  more  arched,  and  from  which  projecting  ribs 
radiate  towards  (he  circumference;  such  are  the  genus  CAR- 
DITA,  the  form  of  which  is  more  or  less  oblong-  or  cordiforrn 
(heart-shape) ;  the  CYPRICARDIA,  in  which  the  tooth  beneath  the 
summit  of  theshell  isdivided  intotvvoor  three;  the  CORALLIOPHAGA, 
in  which  the  shell  is  thin  and  the  lateral  plate  much  effaced,  &c. 

26.  In  the  FAMILY  OF  CHAMACEA  the  mantle  is  closed 
and  perforated  by. three  open- 
ings only;  through  the  anterior 
one  passes  the  foot  (fg.  102, 
p) ;  the  next  (r)  gives  passage 
to  the  water  necessary  for  res- 
piration, and  the  third  (e)  is 
for  the  expulsion  of  effete 
matters.  As  we  have  already 
stated,  the  last  two  openings 
are  not  prolonged  into  tubes,  Tl< 
as  in  the  next  two  families. 
And  the  hinge  is  very  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  Unios ;  for 
the  left  valve  has  a  tooth  near 
the  summit,  and  further  back,  a  projecting  plate,  which  are  re- 
ceived into  fossae  (pits)  in  the  opposite  valve. 

Explanation  of  Fi>.  102. — A  Chama  divested  of  its  shell  to  show  the  dis- 
position of  its  mantle  : — p.  the  foot ; — r.  opening  for  respiration  ; — c  the 
opening  for  the  passage  of  excrement. 

26.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Charaa'cea? 

ax* 


:HAMA,  WITHOUT  ITS  SHELL. 


82 


TRIDACNA.—  CHAMA.—  ISOCARLIA. 


This  family  is  divided  into  Tridacna,  Chama,  Isocardia,  &c. 
27.  The  TEIDACN^E  have  an  equivalve  shell,  which  is  elon- 
gate and  gaping  in  front,  or  its  edges  are  dentate  (Jig.  103). 

Their  internal  orga- 
nization is  remarka- 
ble in  several  particu- 
lars. The  valves  have 
only  a  single  adductor 
muscle.  The  mantle 
is  widely  open  in  front, 
to  give  passage  to 
the  byssus,  and  a 
little  beneath  the  an- 
terior angle  presents 
Fig.  103.—  TRIDACNA.  another  opening,  by 

which  water  is  conveyed  to  the  branchiee;  and  the  third  open- 
ing, which  corresponds  to  the  anus,  is  situate  near  the  middle 
of  the  inferior  border.  To  this  genus  belongs  an  enormous 

shell  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  known 
under  the  vulgar  name  of  the 
Holy-water  Pot  ;  it  adheres  to 
the  rocks  by  its  byssus,  which  is 
so  large  sometimes  that  an  axe  is 
required  to  cut  it,  and  the  shell 
itself  occasionally  weighs  over 
three  hundred  pouuds. 

28.  The  CHAMA  have   an  ir- 
regular, equivalve  shell,  which  is 
usually  lamellar  and  rough;  they 
live  attached  to  rocks,  coral,  &c., 
like    oysters,    and    they   have  a 
small  foot  bent  like  that  of  man 
(fg.  102). 

29.  The  ISOCARDIA  (fig.  104), 
on    the   contrary,  have   a    free, 
regular,  convex  shell  with  spirally 
curved  summits,  divided  anterior. 
ly.    A  large,  smooth,  red  species, 
the    Chama    cor,   inhabits    the 
Mediterranean. 


27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Trida'cna  ? 

28.  How  is    the    genus   Chama   distinguished  ?     (Chama, — pronounced 
ka'ma, — from  the  Greek,  chad,  I  gape.) 

29.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Isoca'rdia  ?  (Isocardia,  from 
ne  Greek,  isos,  like,  and  kardia,  a  heart, — heart-shape.) 


FAMILY  OF  CARDIACEA. 


LESSON  VI. 

FAMILY  OF  CARDIACEA. — Cardium — Donax — Cyclas — Corbis 

—  Tellina  —  Venus — Petricola —  Venerupis — Mactra. 
FAMILY  OF  INCLUSA. — Lutraria — My  a. —  Byssomia — Hiatella 

—  Solen —  Sanguinolaria —  Pholas —  Teredo —  Fistulana — 
Gastrochana — Clavagella — Aspergillum. 

CLASS    OF    MOLLUSCA    BRACHIOPODA. — General    Characters-^- 

Lingulo — Terebratula — Orbicvla. 

CLASS  OF  MOLLUSCA  TUNICATA,  or  ACEPHALA  NUDA. — Biphora 
— ^4  scidia — Botryllus — Pyrosoma. 

CLASS  OF  ACEPHALA,  CONTINUED. 

1.  The  FAMILY  OF  CARDIACEA  is  characterized  by  having 
the  mantle  open  in  front,  and  prolonged  posteriorly  into  two 
tubes,  which  are  sometimes  £ 

distinct,  and  at   others   united 
in  a  single  mass  ;  one  of  them     a 
(jig-  105,  r)  serves  for  respi- 
ration,  and    the   other  (e)  for 
the   passage   of    excrement. — 
This  mode  of  conformation  is  p 
recognised  in  the  shell  by  the 
impression    made    by    the    at- 
iachment    of  the    edge   of  the 
mantle,    called    the    pallial    line   (fig.    106,    Z),    which    before 

joining  the  posterior  muscular 
impression  or  cicalrix  (mi), 
curves  more  or  less  deeply  in- 
I  wards.  In  all  these  mollusks, 
there  is  a  transverse  muscle 
and  a  foot  (fig.  105,  p),  which 
generally  enables  the  animal  to 
crawl.  The  species  of  Cardia- 
cese  that  have  long  tubes,  ordi- 
narily live  buried  in  the  sand  or 
mud. 


Fig.  105.— TELLINA. 


mi 


ai 


Fig.  106. — VENERUPIS. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  105. — Tellina  : — a.  the  shell ; — 6.  the  hinge  ; — r.  tube 
for  respiration  ; — e.  tube  for  excrement ; — p.  the  foot. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  106. — Veneru'pis  : — /.  pallial  line; — at.  anterior 
muscular  impression  ; — mi.  posterior  muscular  impression  or  cicatrix. 


1.  How  is  the  family  of  Cardia'cea  characterized  ?  (Cardiacea,  from  the 
Latin,  cardium,  heart.) 


84     t.IAKDIUM.— DON  AX.— CYCLAS.— CORBIS.— TELLINA. 

2.  In  this  family  we  place  Cardium,  Donax,  Cyclas,  Corbis, 
Tellina,  Lucina,  Venus,  Petricoia,  Mactra,  &c.,  genera  which, 
for  the  most  part,  are  very  numerous  in  species. 

3.  The    CARDIA—  Cardium — are   chiefly    characterized     by 
the  hinge,  which  consists  of  two  small  teeth  in  each  valve,  situate 
in   the  centre,  and  a  projecting  plate  or  tooth  placed  at  some 
distance  in  front  and  behind.     The  shell  is  equivalve,   convex, 
and    furnished    with    ribs  radiating    from   the   summit   towards 
the  circumference.     And   when   looked    at    from    one   side,  its 
general  form  reminds  us  of  that  of  a  heart,  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  summits  (beaks)  of  the  valves  rise   up,  and  curve  in- 
wards towards  each  other. 

4.  The  DONACES — Donax — have  a  hinge  formed  nearly  like 
that  of  the  Cardia;  but  their  shell  is  flattened,  nearly  triangular, 
inequilateral,  and  the  summits  are  nearly  vertical.    Several  small 
species  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  France,  the  shells  of  which  are 
very  pretty. 

5.  The  CYCLADES — Cyclas — have  the    same   hinge  and    are 
distinguished  from   the  preceding    by  the  rounded  form  of  the 
shell,  which  is  equilateral  (that  is,  the  two  halves  of  the  valve, 
situate  on  each  side  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  through  its  summit, 
are   alike),   and    striated    transversely.      One   species,    Tellina 
cornea,  is  common  on  the  coast  of  France.     The  genera  Cyrena 
and  Cyprina  belong  to  this  group. 

6.  The  Corbis  are  transversely  oblong  marine  shells,  which 
resemble  the  preceding  in  the  hinge;  their  external  surface  is 
very  regularly  marked  by  transverse  ribs,  crossed  by  diverging 
rays. 

7.  The  TELLING  (f.g.  105) — Tellina — closely  resemble  the 
Doriaces;  but  they  have  the  middle  of  the  hinge  armed  with  one 
tooth   to  the  left,  and  two  to  the  right.     The   shell  is  slightly 
gaping.     Like  the  Donaces,  they  have  two  long  lubes  (fig.  105), 
which" can  be  entirely  concealed  within  the  shell  when  the  animal 
contracts.     Both  live  buried  in  the  sand  and  are  found  on  the 
coast  of  France. 


2.  Wh**  are  the  principal  genera  belonging  to  the  family  of  Cardiacea  ? 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Cardium  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Donax  ? 

5.  How  is  the  genus  Cy'clas  characterized  ?   (Cyclas,  from  the  Greek, 
tuklos,  a  circle.) 

6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Corbis? 
?.  How  is  the  genus  Telli'na  characterized  ? 


VENUS.— MACTRA. 


85 


' 


/EXCAVATION 

'OFTHEPALLIAL 
IMPRESSION 


Fig.  107. — VENUS. 


8.  The  VENUS 
(Jig.  107)  is  re- 
cognised    by  the 
hinge,  the    ante- 
rior   and    poste-  \ _. 
rior      plates     of  ™ 
which,      instead 

of  being  sepa- 
rated from  the 
middle  tooth,  as 
in  the  Cardia, 
&c.,are  approxi- 
mated in  a  sin- 
gle group  be- 
neath the  sum- 
mit. The  shell 
is  generally  thick,  moderately  convex,  and  a  little  elongated 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  very  numerous. 

9.  The  genera  Petricola  and  Venerupis  (Jig-  106)  resemble 
the  Venus  very  much,  and  have  obtained  their  names  from  living 
in  the  interior  of  stones  which  they  perforate. 

10.  The  MACTRA  differ  from  other  cardiacece   in    having  an 
internal  ligament,  lodged  in  two  pits  in  the  hinije,  corresponding 

with  each  other  (Jig.  108).  There 
are  some  large  species  on  our 
own  coast. 

11.  The  fifth  and  last  family  of 
testaceous  acephalse  or  INCLUSA, 
is  composed  of  mollusks  in  which 
the  mantle  is  only  open  at  its  an- 
terior extremity,  or  near  the  mid- 
dle, for  the  passage  of  the  foot, 
and  is  prolonged  posteriorly  in  a 
double  tube;  in  other  parts  it  is 
completely  closed  (fig>  109). 
The  shell  is  always  gaping  at  the 


Fig.  108.— MACTRA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  107. — Cytherca,  or  Venus ; — s.  the  summit  or  beak ; — 
/.  the  lunule; — p.  pit; — A.  anterior,  and  P.  posterior  extremity  of  the  shell. 


8.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Venus? 

9.  From  what  circumstance  do  the  genera  Petrico'la  and  Venerupis  ob 
tain  their  names?     (Petricola,  from  the  Latin,  petra,  a  stone,  and  co/o,  I 
inhabit. — Venerupis,  Latin,  Venu*,and  rupes,  a  rock.) 

10.  How    is   the   genus    Mac'tra    characterized  ?      (Mactra,    Latin,   a 
trough.") 

11.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  family  of  Inclusa  ?    (Inclusa,, 
Latin,  enclosed.) 

8 


86    LUTRARIA.— MYA.— BYSSOMIA.— HYATELLA — SOLEN. 


extremities,  and  most  of  these  animals  live  buried  in  the 
sand  or  mud  ;  sometimes  they  excavate  holes  in  stones  or  wood. 
They  are  divided  into  Mya,  Lutraria,  Anatina,  Glycymera, 
Solemya,  Byssomia,  Hyatella,  Solen,  Psammobia,  Pholas,  Tere- 
do, Fistulana,  &c. 

12.  The  LUTRARIA  closely  resemble  the  Mactrse;  but  their 
hinge  is  unprovided  with  lateral  laminaB,  and  their  valves  are  very 
gaping,  particularly  behind,  through  which  passes  the  thick  fleshy 
cylinder  formed  by  their  double  tube.     A  large  species  is  found 
in  the  sand,  at  the  mouths  of  several  rivers  in  France. 

13.  In  the  Myae  there  is  a  projecting  plate  in  one  of  the  valves 
and  a  pit  in  the  other,  joined  by  a  ligament ;  the  ANATINA  have 
a  small  plate  in  each  valve,  giving  attachment  to  a   ligament ; 
and  the  SOLEMY^E  and  GLYCYMERJE  differ  from  the  MY.£  in  their 
external  ligament. 

14.  The  BYSSOMIA,  in  place  of  living  in  the  sand  like  the 
preceding,  penetrate  stones  and  corals,  and  attach   themselves  to 
them  by  the  aid  of  a  byssus.     Their  shell  is  oblong,  without  a 
distinct  tooth,  and  gaping  about  the  middle  of  the  inferior  edge, 
for  the  passage  of  the  foot. 

15.  The  HYATELL.E  have  nearly  the  same  general  form;  but 
the  tooth  of  the  hin«e  is  more  marked. 


t  p 

Fig.  109. — SOLEN. 

16.  The  SOLENS,  commonly  called  razor  shells,  knife  handles 
(fig.  109),  from   the  cylindrical   and  elongated    form  of  their 


Explanation  of  Fig.  109. — c.  the  shell  ;- 
mantle ; — p.  the  foot ; — t.  the  tentacles. 


the  anterior  extremity  of  the 


12.  How  is  the  genus  Lutra'ria  characterized  ? 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Mya  ? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Bysso'mia  t 

15.  How  is  the  genus  Hyate'lla  characterized  ? 

16.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Solen  ? 


PHOLAS.— TEREDO.  87 

shell,  have  the  hinge  furnished  with  an  external  ligament,  and 
ormed  on  each  side  with  two  or  three  projecting  and  very  de- 
cided teeth.  Their  foot  is  conical  and  is  pushed  out  at  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  shell.  They  live  in  the  sand,  and  bury  them- 
selves with  great  rapidity  hy  the  motions  of  their  foot. 

17.  The  PHOLADES  are  distinguishable  from  all  the  preceding 
by  one  or  more  calcareous  pieces,  situate  between  the  two  valves 
of  the  shell,   near  the  hinge.     The  valves,  which  are  broad  and 
convex  anteriorly,  are  elongated  on  the  opposite  side,  and   leave 
betwixt  them,  a  great  oblique  opening  at  each  end  ;  their  hinge 
resembles  that  of  the  Mycs ;  their  double  tube  is  not  retractile 
and  may  be  very  much  elongated.     These  animals  inhabit  tubes 
or  long  cells,  which  they  excavate,  either  in  the  mud,  or  stones 
or  wood.     There  are  large  species  on  the  coast  of  France,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  on  the  coast  of  Peru. 

18.  The  TEREDINES,  or  ship  worms,  are  celebrated   for  the 
ravages    they  commit    by  boring  into    ships'  bottoms,   piles  of 

.dikes,    bridges,  &c.     These  are  mollusks    with  a 
very  elongated  and  almost  vermiform  body,  which 
is    enveloped    in    a    tubular    mantle,   open    at    the 
anterior  and  inferior  part  for    the  passage  of  the 
foot ;  it  is  provided  posteriorly  with  two  very  short, 
distinct  tubes,  and  its  base  is  furnished  on  each  side 
with  a  movable  stony  plate ;  the  shell  is  composed 
of  two  rhomboidal  valves,  but  is  very  small,  and 
covers  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  mantle.     It 
seems  that    the  animal,  by  moving  the    extremity 
of  its  shell  like  an  auger,  excavates,  in  submerged 
wood,  the  hole  which  serves  as  its  abode,  and,  as  it 
advances  or  buries  itself  deeper,  it  lines  the  exca- 
vation with  a  calcareous  mutter,  so  that  in  a  short 
time  it  finds  itself  lodged  in  a  stony  tube,  which  at 
first    might    be   mistaken    for    a    second    shell.     It 
begins    its  attack  upon   wood   when  very    young; 
hence  the    external  opening  of  its  gallery  is  very 
small,  but  it   digs  on   until  the   termination  of  its 
growth,  and  progressively  augments  the  size  of  its        „. 
dwelling;  the  two  tubes  which  occupy  the  posterior        TJ£*IIOL 
extremity  of  the  mantle  always    remain  near    the 
opening  of  the  gallery,  and  through  one  of  them  it  causes  the 
water    necessary  for   respiration  and    nutrition    to  enter,  for  it 


1 7  How  is  the  genus  Pholas  characterized  ?  (Pholas,  from  the  Greek, 
pholfoi,  a  lurking-place.) 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Teredj?  (Teredo,  Latin,  a 
•hip-worm.) 


88         FISTULANA.— GASTROCH^ENA.— ASPERGILLUM. 

always  remains  in  its  hole,  with  the  mouth  down  and  the  anus 
above.  The  common  Teredo^  which  is  about  six  inches  long,  it 
is  said  was  brought  from  the  torrid  zone,  but  it  is  widely 
spread  in  the  seas  of  France,  and  infests  the  dikes  of  Holland 
to  such  an  extent  that  its  unperceived  ravages  have,  more  than 
once,  been  near  producing  terrible  inundations.  Vessels  have 
been  sunk  by  the  holes  bored  through  their  bottoms  by  these 
animals.  To  guard  against  such  accidents,  is  one  among  the 
reasons  why  ships'  bottoms  are  covered  under  water  by  thin 
sheets  of  copper. 

19.  The  FISTULAN^E  also  live  buried  in  submerged  wood  or 
other  analogous  substances,  and  also  line  the  interior  of  their 
hole  with  a  calcareous  mortar   which  constitutes  a  tube,  com- 
pletely closed  at  the  large  end,  having  more  or  less  resemblance 
to  a  bottle.     Like  the  Teredines,  they  have  externally  a  small 
bivalve  shell  and  two  plates,  which  may  be  regarded  as  analo- 
gous to  the  operculum  pieces  of  the  gastcropods.     They  inhabit 
the  Indian  Seas. 

20.  The  GASTROCH^N^  differ  very  little  from  the  preceding; 
their  shell,  which  is  unprovided  with  teeth,  is  very  gaping    in 
front,  and  their  double  tube,  which  can  be  retracted  entirely  with- 
in the  shell,  is  susceptible  *of  great    elongation;  they  excavate 
holes  in  stones  or  masses  of  madrepore,  and  often  line  these  holes 
with  calcareous  matter  which,  on  becoming  hard,  constitutes  a 
tube  similar  to  that  formed  by  the  Teredo  and  Fistulana. 

21.  We   also    place   in    this   division    the    CLAVIGELLA    and 
ASPERGILLUM,  which  also  construct   a  calcareous  tube;  in  the 
first,  one  of  the  valves  is  clasped  by  the  tube,  while  the  other 
remains  free  in  its  interior;  and  in  the  last,  the  tube  has,  at  its 
closed  extremity,  a  disk  perforated  by  a  great  many  little  tube- 
like  holes,  an  arrangement  which  has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of 
"  watering-pot  shell." 

CLASS  OF  BRACHZOPOD  MOLLUSKS. 

22.  These    mollusks    are   very    analogous     to   the   common 
acephalce ;    they   are   also    provided    with   a  two-lobed  mantle, 


19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Fistulana?  (Fistulana,  from 
ihe  Latin,  fistula,  a  pipe.) 

20-  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Gastrocheena  ?  (Gastrochoma, 
from  the  Greek,  gaster,  helly,  and  chaind,  I  gape.) 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  Clavigella?  (Clavigella,  from  the  Latin, 
clavis,  a  nail  or  spike.)  How  is  the  genus  Aspergillum  distinguished  ? 
'vAspergillum,  Latin,  a  watering-pot.) 

2k  What  are  the  characters  of  Brachiopod  mollusks  ?  (Brachiopod, 
pronounced  brak-e-opod,  from  the  Greek,  brachion,  an  arm,  and  pnus,  foot.) 


LINGULA TEREBRATULA. 


69 


Fig.  111. 

TERKDRATULA. 


and  a  bivalve  shell ;  they  have  no  foot,  but 
in  place  of  it,  two  fleshy  arms  furnished 
with  filaments,  and  susceptible  of  being  un- 
folded externally,  or  drawn  within  the  shell 
by  folding  spirally  (fg.  Ill,  a);  their 
branchiae  are  not  distinct  from  the  mantle, 
and  the  mass  formed  by  their  viscera  is  very 
small.  They  are  unprovided  with  organs  of 
locomotion,  and  live  attached  to  submarine 
bodies. 

The  principal  genera  composing  this 
group,  are  the  Lingula,  Terebratula,  and 
Orbicula. 

23.  The  LINGTJL.E  are  provided  with  a  long  fleshy  peduncle, 
one  extremity  of  which  is  generally  attached  to  the  rocks  these 
animals  ordinarily  inhabit,  and  the  other  is  furnished  with  two 
oblong,  flattened  valves.  Their  arms,  which  are  inserted  in  the 
sides  of  the  mouth,  are  very  long  ;  and  the  branchial  vessels 
are  distributed  on  the  internal  face  of  the  mantle,  and  there  form 
on  each  side  a  series  of  small  parallel  folds.  They  are  found  in 
the  Asiatic  Seas. 

24.  The  TEREBRATUL^E  have  two 
unequal  valves  joined  by  a  hinge, 
and  one  of  them  (fig,  112)  has  a 
hole  through  its  summit  for  the  pas- 
sage of  a  fleshy  peduncle,  by  means 
of  which  the  animal  attaches  itself. 
Their  branchiae  are  less  distinct  than 
in  the  LinguIcC,  and  consist  simply  of 
a  vascular  net-work  spread  over  the 
internal  face  of  the  mantle;  but 
their  muscular  system  is  more  de- 
veloped, and  there  is  found  in  the 
interior  of  the  shell  a  small  solid 
frame  (fg.  113),  the  structure  of 
which  is  sometimes  very  compli- 
cated ;  its  chief  uses  are  to  afford 
attachment  to  muscles,  and  to  as- 
sist in  separating  the  valves.  Some 
living  Terebratulse  are  found  in 
the  South  Seas  ;  but-'  they  abound 
most  in  the  fossil  state;  and  are  Fig.  113. — TEREBRATULA. 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Lin'gula  ?   (Lingula,  Latin,  a 
latchet,  or  tongue  of  a  shoe.) 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Terebra'tulu  ?  (TerebratuJa.  from  th« 
Latin  terebro,  J  bore.) 

8*  2Y 


Fig.  1 12. TEREBRATULA. 


BIPHORA. 


found  in  the  most  ancient  fossiliferous  strata  or  layers  of  the 
earth's  crust. 

25.  The  ORBICUL^E  have  one  round,  conical  valve,  like  the 
shell  of  the  Patellae  (fg.  78,  p),  while  the  other   is  flat    and 
perforated  for  the  passage  of  a  very  small  peduncle  ;  the  confor- 
mation of  their  arms,  and  the  arrangement  of  their  branchial 
vessels,  very  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Terebratulsc. 

CLASS  OF  MOLLUSC  A  TUNICATA,  OB  ACSPHALA 
WITHOUT  SIISLLS. 

26.  The  acephalous  mollusks  without  shells,  which  have  also 
been  called  Tunicata,  differ  much  from  all  the  preceding  in  their 
general  form,  as  well  as  in  many  important  particulars  of  their 
organization.      Their  mantle   consists  sometimes   of  a    simple 
tube  open  at  both  ends,  and  sometimes  of  a  sack ;  their  branchiae 
present  different  forms,  but  always  very  little  developed,  and  an 
never   divided  into  four  leaflets  or  laminae,  as  in  the  ordinary 
acephalse,   or    lamellibranch    testacea,    among   which   they  are 
placed  by  many  authors ;  they  have  neither  foot  nor  arm ;  and 
they  evidently  form  the  connecting  link   between  the  mollusks 
we  have  just  described  and  inferior  animals  which  are  ranged 
among  the  Polypi  in  the  branch  of  Zoophytes. 

27.  The  BIPHOR.E  of  all  the  Tunicata  possess  the  most  com- 
plicated organization.     Their  mantle  is  tubular,  furnished  with 
transverse  muscular  bands,  and  enclosed  in  a  transparent,  car- 

f  an 


—P 


br 


Fig.  114. — BIPHORA. 

Cilaginous  envelope  ;  both  extremities  are  open,  and  the  posterior 
orifice  (p)  is  supplied  with  a  little  valve,  so  arranged  as  to 
admit  the  water,  but  not  to  allow  its  escape ;  the  mouth 

Explanation  of  Fig.  114.— a.  the  anterior  opening  of  the  mantle; — 6.  the 
mouth  ;— /.  the  liver,  &c. ; — an.  the  anus  ; — br.  the  branchiae  ; — p.  posterior 
opening  of  the  mantle. 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Orbicula  ? 

26.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  class  of  Tunicata? 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Biphora  ? 


ASCIDIA  AGGREGATA. 


is  placed  in  the  tube  formed  by  the  mantle  towards  its  anterior 
extremity  ;  and  the  heart,  liver,  and  other  viscera,  are  united 
into  a  small  mass  near  this  opening  ;  the  anus  is  situate  far  be- 
hind, and  the  only  branchia,  which  is  formed  of  a  membrane 
transversely  plaited,  extends  obliquely  from  the  superior  to  the 
inferior  parietes  of  the  pallial  cavity  ;  the  water  which  traverses 
this  tube,  consequently  laves  the  respiratory  apparatus,  and  the 
animal  moves  by  forcibly  expelling  it  from  the  side  of  the  mouth  : 
hence,  we  see  it  must  necessarily  swim  backwards.  When 
full  grown,  these  mollusks  are  free  ;  but  at  birth  they  are  fre- 
quently united  to  each  other,  forming  a  long  chain,  and  swim 
in  this  manner  for  a  long  time;  it  seems  that  the  individuals 
thus  united,  after  becoming  free  or  separated,  produce  young, 
which  are  not  joined  together  in  a  chain  as  just  described,  and 
differ  from  them  in  form,  and  that  the  young  arising  from  the 
last  are  united  and  similar  to  the  first  ;  so  that  in  these  singu- 
lar animals  there  is  the  most  remarkable  alternation,  the  same 
form  and  the  same  mode  of  existence  not  being  transmitted  from 
one  generation  to  the  other,  but  constantly  returning  to  the 
second  generation. 

The  Biphorae  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  ocean  ;  they  frequently  emit  a  phosphoric 
light. 

28.  The  simple  ASCIDI^E  cannot  move  like  the  Biphorse,  bet 
live  attached  to  rocks  ;  their  mantle  is  in  the  form  of  a  sack, 
with  two  orifices,  and  the  interior  of  this  cavity  is   lined  with  a 
net-  work  composed  of  the  branchial  vessels;  the  mouth  and  the 
little  bag  or  sack  containing  the  viscera,  are  attached  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  great  branchial  cavity,  and  the  anus  is  found  near  one 
of  its  openings. 

29.  Other  Tunicata,  closely  resembling  the  preceding  in  their 
organization,  live  united  in  a  common  mass,  and  for  this  reason 
they  are  designated  under  the  name  of  ASCIDIA  COMPOSITA  or 
AGGREGATA.     A   gelatinous   or   cartilaginous  tissue   encloses  a 
great  number  of  these  little  beings,  the  surface  of  which  presents 
a  multitude  of  six-pointed  stars  formed  by  their  openings  ;  their 
propagation  seems  to  be  effected   in   two  ways  ;  sometimes  the 
mass   grows    by  the  development  of  reproductive  buds  in  this 
common  tissue,  sometimes  the  young  formed   in  an  ovary  are 
expelled  externally,  and  swim  about  free  or  separately  for  some 
time,  until  they  become  attached  to  some  submarine  body,  where 
they  establish  a  new  colony. 


28.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ascidia  ?     (Ascidia,  from  the 
Greek,  oskos,  a  bottle  or  pouch.) 

29.  What  is  meai.t   by  the  Aggregata  ?     (Aggregata;  Latin,  gathered 
together.) 


BOTRYLLUS.—PYROSOMA. 


30.  We  give  the  name  of  BOTRYLLUS  to  small  aggregated 
Tunicata  of  an  oval  form,  which  differ  little  from  the  preceding, 
except  their  branchial  sack  is  open  at  both  extremities,  and  the 
anal  orifice  terminates  in  a  central  cavity,  around  which  ten  or 
twelve  of  these  mollusks  are  grouped  like  the  rays  of  a  star. 


Fig.  115. — PYROSOMA. 

31.  The  PYROSOM^E  unite  in  great  numbers,  forming  a  large 
hollow  cylinder,  open  at  one  end  and  closed  at  the  other,  which 
swims  in  the  ocean  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of 
the  animals  that  compose  it.  In  their  individual  organization  they 
are  similar  to  the  preceding. 

OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SHELLS. 

We  have  now  brought  our  history  of  the  Mollusca  to  a  close  ; 
but  with  the  view  of  imparting  clearer  notions  on  the  subject  of 
Gonchology,  or  History  of  Shells,  we  shall  add  here  a  few 
words  in  relation  to  the  parts  of  shells.  It  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  understand  these  parts,  before  we  can  comprehend  the 
descriptions  given  by  conchologists,  or  be  able  to  describe  sheila 
in  such  a  way  as  conchologists  can  recognise  them. 

The  most  simple  farm  of  a  shell  is  the  cone  (fig.  70,  page 
57).  The  apex  of  the  cone  is  oblique  and  excentric.  In  the 
Limpets  (Patella),  Argonaut,  and  Nautilus,  the  apex  is  directed 
towards  the  head,  but  in  most  other  mollusks,  towards  the  oppo- 
site extremity  of  the  body. 

A  shell  may  consist  of  one  piece,  as  in  the  inopercular 
univalves — that  is,  univalves  without  an  operculum  or  door. 

A  shell  may  consist  of  two  pieces,  as  in  the  opercular 
univalves  (univalves  with  an  operculum),  and  in  most  bivalves. 

A  shell  may  consist  of  three  pieces,  as  in  the  Terebratula 
(figs.  112  and  113,  page  89). 

A  shell  may  consist  of  four  or  more  pieces,  as  in  some  of  the 
Pholades. 

A  shell  may  consist  of  many  pieces,  in  which  case  it  consti- 
tutes a  multivalve,  as  the  Chiton  (fig.  79). 

30.  What  are   the  characters  of  the    Botryllus.      (Botryllus,  from  tha 
Greek,  bntrus,  a  bunch  of  grapes.) 

31.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Pyrosoma  ?     (Pyrosoma,  from 
the  Greek,  pur,  fire,  and  somat  body — fire-bodies  ;  so  called  from  possessing 
4ie  faculty  of  emitting  light.) 


PARTS  CV  UNIVALVE  SHELLS.  93 

The  univalve  shells  are  much  more  numerous  than  any  others, 
both  in  genera  and  species ;  and  it  requires  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  attention  to  discriminate  many  of  the  species,  as  they 
run  into  each  other  so  much. 

In  the  examination  of  univalve  shells,  the  general  outline  or 
contour  of  the  whole  shell  is  the  first  particular  to  be  attended 
to,  as  this  leads  to  those  distinctions  necessary  in  the  definition 
of  simple,  spiral,  or  turbinated  shells,  or  more  strictly,  accord- 
ing to  the  Linnean  method  of  discrimination,  univalves  with  a 
regular  spire,  and  those  without  a  regular  spire.  Univalve 
shells  are  classified  principally  from  the  shape  of  the  aperture, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  the  general  shape  of  the  shell ;  from 
the  spire  being  lengthened  or  depressed,  being  with  or  without  a 
canal,  the  length  of  the  beak  and  its  direction,  together  with 
the  particular  form  of  the  outer  or  external  lip  :  the  colour  of 
shells  only  serves  as  a  specific  distinction,  and,  even  in  this 
respect,  cannot  in  all  cases  be  depended  upon,  although,  in 
others,  it  is  an  unvarying  test.  The  particular  manner  in  which 
the  spots  are  disposed,  frequently  characterizes  species. 

A pex,  is  the  summit,  tip,  or  highest  part  of  a  shell  (Jig.  116). 

Base,  is  the  opposite  extremity  from  the  apex  (Jig.  116).  In 
shells  with  a  beak  or  rostrum  (as  the  Murex,^-.  64),  it  implies 
the  tip  of  such  beak;  in  shells  without  a  beak  it  is  understood 
to  be  the  lower  part,  as  before  mentioned,  opposite  the  apex.  In 
the  Patella,  and  some  others,  the  base  of  the  shell  is  that  part  on 
which  it  rests  when  it  is  laid  on  its  mouth  ;  in  the  Teredo,  and 
similar  shells,  it  is  the  wider  end. 

Body  of  the  shell,  is  the  first  or  lower  whorl  of  the  spire,  in 
which  the  aperture  is  situated  ;  this  whorl  is  generally  longer 
than  the  others  (fig.  18). 

Front,  of  the  shell,  is  that  side  where  the  aperture  is  situated. 

Back  of  the  shell,  is  the  opposite  side  to  that  in  which  the  aper 
ture  is  placed. 

The  venter  or  belly,  is  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  lower 
whorl  or  body,  generally  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lip  over 
the  aperture,  and  formed  by  the  convexity  of  the  aperture.  In 
general  this  term  is  only  made  use  of  in  describing  shells 
whose  body  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  spire  (Jigs. 
52  and  59). 

Sides  of  a  shell,  are  the  extreme  edges  of  the  shell,  when 
viewed  either  in  front  or  from  the  back.  The  right  side  is  the 
one  next  the  observer's  left  hand,  when  the  shell  is  viewed  in 
front ;  and  the  side  with  the  aperture  in  it,  is  the  left  side. 

The  conical  univalve  shell  is  generally  spirally  convoluted  : 
sometimes,  as  in  the  nautilus  (jigs.  15  and  16),  in  the  same 

2Y# 


!J4 


PARTS  OF  UNIVALVE  SHELLS. 


plane,  but  more  usually  in  an  oblique  direction.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  spiral  univalve,  if  viewed  in 
the  position  in  which  its  inhabitant 
would  carry  it,  if  moving  forwards 
from  the  observer,  is  twisted,  from  the 
apex  downwards,  from  left  to  right, 
the  spire  being  directed  obliquely  to- 
wards the  right.  The  annexed  figure 
(fig.  116)  shows  the  involutions  or 
whorls  of  the  spire  of  the  Pleurotoma. 
In  some  genera,  for  example,  Clausilia 
(from  the  Latin,  clavsus,  shut, fig.  25, 
page  40)  and  Physa  (from  the  Greek, 
phusa,  a  bubble,  fig.  30,  page  42),  the 
shell  is  twisted  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion :  such  shells  are  called  "  per- 
verse," or  "  sinistral." 

The  aperture  or  mouth,  is  that  part 
of  the  lower  whorl  or  body  through 
which  the  animal  protrudes  itself. 
This  is  one  of  the  principal  means  of 
distinguishing  the  genera  of  univalve 
shells,  and  it  varies  much  in  its  form; 
some  apertures  are  rounded  (figs.  43 
and  46);  others  semilunar  (fig.  55); 
others  angular  (fig.  37),  &c.  Some 
apertures  have  a  canal  at  their  base 
(figs.  63  and  116),  and  others  are  with- 
out it  (fig.  51).  In  various  genera, 
the  aperture  extends  the  whole  length 
of  the  shell,  as  in  Ovula  (fig.  68), 
Cyprsea,  and  some  of  the  Cones  with 
depressed  spires  (fig.  70).  In  several  individuals,  the  aperture 
is  either  entirely  open,  or  closed  by  an  operculum  or  door,  which 
is  usually  affixed  to  the  foot  of  the  animal. 

When  without  a  notch  or  canal,  the  aperture  is  said  to  be 
entire  (fig.  51).  The  aperture  has  two  lips  or  borders;  the 
internal  lip,  or  border,  is  on  the  side  of  the  aperture,  formed  by 
the  columella,  and  the  external,  or  outer  lip,  or  border,  is  oppo- 
site, as  in  the  Pleurotoma  (fig.  116);  the  letter  b.  indicates  the 
pallial  notch;  n.  notch  of  the  syphon. 

Canal,  or  gutter  (fig.  116),  is  the  space  or  hollow,  formed  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  two  lips  of  the  aperture.  Some  shells 
have  two  canals,  one  situated  at  the  point  where  the  outer  lip  and 
body  join. 


Apex. 

Fig.  116.— PLEUROTOMA. 


PARTS  OF  UNIVALVE  SHELLS.  95 

Beak  or  rostrum,  is  that  lengthened  process  in  which  the 
canal  is  situate.  This  process  is  not  so  conspicuous  in  some  of 
the  species  of  Voluta,  but  is  more  marked  :'.n  the  genera  Murex, 
Fusus,  &c. 

The  columella  or  pillar,  is  that  process  which  runs  through 
the  centre  of  the  shell  in  the  inside,  from  the  base  to  the  apex, 
and  around  which  the  whorls  or  wreaths  of  the  spire  are  wound 
(Jig.  19,  page  34).  When  the  columella  is  marked  by  ridges 
or  folds,  as  in  Auricula  (fg.  31)  and  Oliva  (fg.  67),  it  is  said 
to  be  plicated  or  plaited,  but  when  it  is  smooth,  as  in  Jig.  116, 
it  is  simple. 

Pillar  lip,  is  a  continuation  of  the  glassy  process  with  which 
the  aperture  is  lined,  and  expanded  on  the  columella  (Jigs.  58 
and  66).  It  is  also  called  the  inner  or  internal  lip  (Jig.  116). 

The  ovter  lip,  or  external  border,  is  the  expansion  or  con- 
tinuation of  the  body  of  the  shell,  on  the  left  margin  of  the 
aperture,  and  is  also  lined  with  the  glossy  process  of  the  aperture 
(fg.  116). 

Spire  consists  of  all  the  whorls  of  the  shell  except  the  lower 
one,  which,  as  before  observed,  is  termed  the  body  of  the  shell. 
This  spire  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  univalve;  and  upon  its 
being  elevated,  depressed,  &c.,  depends  much  of  the  generic  and 
specific  definition  of  these  shells. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  many  of  the  young 
shells  have  not  the  same  number  of  wreaths  as  the  adults  ; 
from  which  it  would  appear,  that  the  part  of  the  animal  nearest 
the  apex  never  increases  in  size.  The  number  of  wreaths 
cannot,  at  all  times,  be  depended  upon.  A  full-grown  shell 
may,  however,  be  known  from  the  outer  lip,  which  has  generally 
an  unfinished  appearance  in  young  shells.  Indeed,  in  all  the 
land  and  fresh-water  shells,  it  is  a  distinct  criterion,  as  they  are 
never  complete  in  the  form  of  the  outer  lip,  till  full-grown. 

Whorl  is  one  of  the  wreaths  or  volutions  of  the  shell  (Jig. 
116). 

Depressed  spire  is  when  the  spire  is  very  flat,  as  in  the  shells 
of  the  genus  Planorbis  (Jig.  29,  page  42). 

Involuted  spire,  is  where  the  spire  is  concealed  in  the  inside 
of  the  first  whorl  or  body,  as  in  some  of  the  Nautili,  Cypraeoe, 
Ovulie,  &c.  (Jiff.  68). 

Svtvre  of  the  spire,  or  whorls,  is  a  fine  spiral  line  or  seam, 
formed  by  the  joining  together  of  the  whorls ;  it  is  sometimes 
crenulated,  undulated  (waved),  pr  sulcated  (grooved),  and  not 
unfrequently  elevated  or  projecting  (fg.  116). 

Reversed,  or  heterostrophe  spire,  is  when  the  volutions  of  the 
spire  revolve  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  corkscrew,  or 


Of)  PARTS  OF  BIVALVE  SHELLS. 

when  the  aperture  is  pjaced  downwards,  the  nature  of  the  spire 
rnns  upwards  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left  (fg.  25). 

Chambers  are  the  cavities,  divided  by  partitions  at  regular  or 
irregular  intervals,  as  in  the  Naulilus  (f-g.  15,  page  30). 

Umbilicus  is  a  circular  perforation  in  the  base  of  the  lower 
whorl  or  body.  (See  page  38). 

Sub-umbilicated  shells,  are  those  which  have  the  umbilicus 
covered,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  by  a  thin  process  ;  which, 
in  some,  almost  entirely  closes  the  aperture  or  mouth.  This 
character  is  most  commonly  to  be  met  with  among  species  of 
Buccinum  and  Murex. 

Umbilical  jissvre,  is  a  groove  extending  from  the  umbilicus 
(fig.  116). 

Shells  which  have  no  umbilicus  are  termed  imperforate. 

Siphvnculns  (little  syphon)  is  that  small  round  perforation 
which  forms  a  communication  between  the  chambers  in  the 
Nautilus,  and  penetrates  through  the  whole  spire  of  the  shell 
(/£•*.  15  and  16). 

Varices  are  transverse  ribs  which  cross  the  whorls  of  shells 
in  some  species  of  Buccinum,  Murex,  &c.  Varices  are  formed 
by  the  periodical  growth  of  the  shells,  these  being  the  margin  of 
the  outer  lip,  to  which  the  animal  has  attached  its  periodical 
enlargements  (fg>  46).  In  some  species  they  have  more  the 
form  of  sutures  than  ribs  ;  this  is  owing  to  the  marg'a  of  the 
outer  lip  being  but  slightly  developed. 

Ribs  are  those  longitudinal  and  transverse  protuberances 
which  are  in  many  of  the  univalve  shells  (Jig.  46). 

Teeth  of  univalves,  according  to  Colonel  Montagu,  are  not 
properly  tooth-shaped  protuberances,  but  are  fine  white  laminae 
or  ridges,  running  spirally  backwards,  in  a  direction  parallel  to 
each  other ;  those  on  the  exterior  lip  may,  in  most  instances,  be 
traced  through  the  outside  of  the  shell,  and  are  nearly  alike  in 
length  (£gs.2±,  25  and  42). 

Epidermis  is  a  skin,  or  cuticle,  covering  the  exterior  surface 
of  many  shells,  destined  by  nature  to  protect  their  surface  from 
being  injured. 

True  bivalve  shells  are  peculiar  to  the  acephalous  mollusca; 
and  their  presence  is  constant,  although  they  are  in  a  few 
instances  too  small  to  cover  the  whole  body,  and  in  the  ship- 
borers  (Teredo)  exist  only  as  small  instiuments,  limited  to  the 
function  of  excavating  the  burrows  inhabited  by  these  mollusks. 
But  all  the  species,  in  which  the  bivalve  shell  is  inadequate  to 
the  protection  of  the  whole  body,  derive  extrinsic  defence  by 
burrowing  in  sand,  or  stone,  or  wood ;  and  they  also  commonly 
line  their  burrows  with  a  layer  of  smooth  and  compact  oal- 


PARTS  OF  BIVALVE  SHELLS.  97 

careous  matter,  forming  a  tube.  This  calcareous  tube,  m  somo 
cases,  is  of  considerable  size  and  thickness.  In  the  Clavigella 
one  valve,  and  in  the  Aspergillum  both  valves,  are  soldered  to 
this  tube,  which,  in  ihe  latter,  presents  a  peculiar  modification 
of  its  exposed  extremity,  which  resembles  the  end  of  the  spout 
of  a  watering-pot.  No  two  shells  can  present  a  greater  con- 
trast  than  do  those  of  the  Placuna  and  Aspergillum ;  yet  the 
organization  of  their  respective  constructors  is  essentially  the 
same.  In  a  classification  of  shells,  the  calcareous  tubes  of  ttle 
Dentalium,  Serpula,  Aspergillum,  Vermetus,  &c.,  would  be 
associated  in  the  same  general  group:  but  it  needs  only  to 
observe  how  these  products  of  animals,  belonging  not  only  to 
different  classes,  but  to  distinct  primary  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  are  arranged  in  the  cabinets  of  collectors,  to  be  con- 
vinced that  Conchology  as  a  classificatory  science,  apart  from 
Malacology  (the  science  of  mollusks),  no  longer  exists. 

With  regard  to  the  structure  and  physiological  relations  of 
bivalve  shells,  it  may  be  observed,  first,  that  in  all  acephalous 
mollusks  which  breathe  by  distinct  lamellated  gills  (branchias), 
— Lamellib?'anchiata, — one  valve  corresponds  to  the  left,  the 
other  to  the  right  side  of  the  animal  ;  but  in  the  brachiopodous 
bivalves,  one  valve  is  applied  to  the  ventral,  and  the  other  to  the 
dorsal  aspect  of  the  animal. 

In  all  the  lamellibranch  bivalves  which  are  free,  the  two 
valves  are  symmetrical,  and  the  shell  is  termed  equivalve ;  in 
nil  those  which  adhere  by  one  of  their  valves  to  foreign  bodies, 
this  valve  is  deeper  and  larger  than  the  unattached  valve ;  such 
shells  are  termed  inequivalve.  Of  those  acephalans  which  are 
attached  to  foreign  bodies  by  means  of  a  byssus,  some,  as  the 
Tridacna  (fig.  103),  are  equivalve,  and  both  valves  are 
notched,  to  form  the  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  byssus ;  while 
others,  as  the  Pecten  (fig.  91),  and  Avicula  (Jig.  95),  are 
inequivalve,  the  byssus  passing  through  a  groove  in  the  right 
valve. 

If  the  shell  of  the  common  cockle  be  examined,  each  valve 
will  be  seen  to  be  produced  into  a  conical  prominence  bent 
towards,  and  nearly  meeting  at,  that  part  by  which  the  valves 
are  joined  together.  These  prominences  are  termed  the  umbones^ 
or  sometimes  beaks.  The  apex  of  the  urnbo  corresponds  to 
the  apex  of  the  univalve  shell,  and  is  the  point  at  which  the 
development  of  the  bivalve  commences.  When  the  apex  is 
directed  in  the  transverse  plane  of  the  shell,  and  so  placed, 
that  a  division  of  the  shell  in  that  plane  through  the  apices 
shall  divide  the  valve  into  two  equal  parts,  the  shell  is  termed 
equilateral;  of  this  form  the  Pecten  (fig.  91)  is  an  example, 
9 


98  PARTS  OF  BIVALVE  SHELLS. 

When  upon  a  similar  division,  a  slight  difference  is  observed 
in  the  two  valves,  the  shell  is  termed  subequi lateral ;  but 
where  the  difference  is  well  marked,  it  is  an  inequilateral  bivalve 
(Jig.  117).  When  the  apex  is  bent,  as  is  commonly  the 
case,  out  of  the  transverse  plane,  it  is  always  directed  more  or 
less  towards  the  anterior  part  of  the  shell ;  if  such  a  bivalve 
shell  as  the  Cytherea,  or  Isocardia,  be  held  before  the  observer, 
with  the  umbones  directed  forward,  and  the  hinge  above, — in  the 
p<^ition,  in  fact,  in  which  the  living  animal  would  place  itself 
if  it  were  creeping  forwards  from  the  observer, — the  right  valve 
will  of  course  correspond  with  the  right  hand  of  the  observer,  and 
the  left  with  the  left. 


Superior  or  dorsal  border. 


Fig.  1 1  7. — LEFT  VALVE  OF  A  CYTHEREA. 

The  annexed  figure  (117)  represents  the  left  valve  of  &. 
Cytherea, — the  common  clam  belongs  to  this  group,  and  would 
answer  our  purpose  as  well.  You  see  that  the  superior  or 
dorsal  margin  is  on  the  side  where  the  hinge  is  placed,  and  the 
ventral  or  inferior  border  opposite  to  it;  JL,  is  the  anterior 
margin  or  slope;  P,  the  posterior  margin  or  slope;  the  vmbo 
is  marked  "  BEAK,"  and  *,  points  to  the  summit  or  apex  of  the 
beak  ;  /,  shows  the  situation  of  the  Ivnule.  Now,  if  a  bivalve 
in  which  the  apices  have  a  spiral  twist,  as  in  the  Isocardia 
(fig.  104),  be  placed  in  the  above  position,  and  compared  with 
the  univalve  shell  of  the  Purpvra,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  left 
valve  corresponds  with  the  ordinary  or  dextral  spiral  univalve, 
and  the  right  valve  to  the  perverse  or  sinistral  univalve. 

When  the  circumference  or  margin  of  one  valve  fits  exactly, 
at  every  part,  that  of  its  fellow,  it  is  said  to  be  "  regular"  or 
"  entire ;"  but  if  it  be  notched  at  any  part,  so  as  not  to  come 


PARTS  OF  BIVALVE  SHELLS. 


90 


in  contact  with  the  corresponding  part  of  the  opposite  valve,  it  is 
"  irregular,"  or  emarginate. 

Besides   the    parts    mentioned,  A 

we  shall  find  in  most  cases,  an-  i 

terior  to  the  apices  of  the  beaks, 
a  depression  of  variable  extent 
and  depth.  This  is  the  lunule 
(fg.  118,  /)  :  it  may  be  cordi- 
form,  or  crescentic,  lanceolate 
(oblong,  and  gradually  tapering 
towards  each  extremity),  oval, 
deep,  superficial,  &c.  Behind 
the  beaks  is  another  depression, 
longer  and  narrower  than  the 
lunule,  and  which  is  called  the 
fissure  (/),  and  its  margins 
are  named  lips  of  the  fissure 
( If).  Behind  the  fissure  there  is 
sometimes  a  small  depression 
called  the  suture  (s).  The 
general  more  or  less  convex 
surface  of  each  valve  is  called 
the  "venter,"  or  belly,  which 
terminates  in  the  Zimfr,  circum- 
ference or  margin.  In  the  figure  (118),  the  letters  designate 
parts,  as  follows:  A,  anterior  slope;  P,  posterior  slope;  Z/,  left 
valve  ;  72,  right  valve ;  7,  lunule ;  f.  fissure  ;  //",  lips  of  the  {Js- 
sure;  «,  suture  ;  lig,  ligament ;  m/,  the  nymphae. 


Fig.  118.— CVTHEREA. 


?UBCARUVk  .--'OFTHEPALLIAL 

IMPKESSION 


Fig.  119. RIGHT    VALVE     )F    A    CYTHERKA. 

The   most   important   part   of  tho    margin  is  that  which   it 


100  PARTS  OF  BIVALVE  SHELLS. 

modified  to  form  the  joint  or  hinge  upon  which  the  two  valves 
open  and  shut.  This  part  is  called  the  "cardinal  edge"  (jig. 
1 1(J),  and  generally  presents  certain  prominences  and  depressions  ; 
the  projections  of  one  valve  interlocking  with  the  depressions  of 
the  other.  The  projections,  or  "  teeth,"  together  wiih  the  cavi- 
ties, or  "  cardinal  pits"  (p),  are  very  regular  in  their  formation 
in  each  genus  and  species  of  bivalve,  but  what  is  of  more  impor- 
tance is,  that  every  modification  in  the  structure  of  the  hinge  is 
generally  found  to  coincide  with  some  recognisable  and  more  or 
less  important  difference  in  the  organization  of  the  soft  parts ;  so 
that  conchologists  have  justly  attached  great  value  to  the  charac- 
ters derivable  from  the  hinge,  especially  for  the  purpose  of  gene- 
ric  distinctions.  When  the  teeth  are  situate  beneath  the  apex  (*) 
or  centre  of  the  hinge,  they  are  called  cardinal,  or  primary , 
when  they  are  removed  from  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  they  are 
named  lateral  teeth  ;  when  two  only  are  present,  one  is  called 
anterior,  the  other  posterior ;  when  there  are  three,  they  are  dis- 
tinguished respectively  as  anterior,  median  or  middle,  and  pos 
terior  teeth ;  but  when  the  hinge  is  composed  of  a  great  numbei 
of  teeth,  it  is  said  to  be  "serial,"  as  in  Area  (fg.  97);  some 
hinges  have  no  visible  teeth,  and  are  termed  inarticulate. 

The  direct  medium  of  union  of  the  two  valves  is  a  dense  fasci 
culus  (bundle)  of  elastic  fibres,  generally  of  a  brown  colour,  calleo 
ligament,  or  elastic  ligament.  The  fibres  of  this  part  are  at- 
tached by  their  extremities  to  the  two  valves,  which,  in  most  cases, 
present  a  particular  depression  for  their  reception.  The  ligameni 
is  always  so  long  as  to  prevent  the  actual  closing  of  the  valves, 
except  when  its  elasticity  is  overcome  by  a  certain  force,  as  by 
that  of  the  contraction  of  the  adductor  muscle  or  muscles:  thus, 
the  inorganic  power  of  elasticity  is  made  the  direct  antagonist  of 
a  vital  and  muscular  contraction  ;  and  as  the  open  or  expanded 
condition  of  the  bivalve  shell  is  that  which  the  exigences  of  the 
animal  most  constantly  require,  it  is  assigned  to  a  force  which 
can  act  without  ever  causing  fatigue,  while  the  occasional  or 
protective  action  of  forcibly  closing  the  valves,  is  due  to  an  ac- 
tion under  the  immediate  control  of  the  wHl  or  instinctive  sensa- 
tion. The  modifications  of  the  internal  surface  of  a  bivalve 
shell  are  caused  by  the  structure  of  the  animal  inhabiting  it : 
hence,  they  afford  the  characters  by  which  the  habits  of  an  ex- 
tinct genus  may  be  to  a  great  extent  determined. 

These  modifications  are  marked  on  the  last  figure. 

The  pallial  impression  shows  the  development  of  the  muscn 
ar  margin  of  the  mantle. 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 
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